^^.-.

TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

Cornell University

Agricultural Experiment Station

ITHACA, N. Y.

1908

TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 15, 1909

ALBANY

J. B. LYON COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS

1909

State of New York

]

No. 29.

IN asse:mbly

January 15, 1909.

TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell

University

STATE OF NEW YORK :

Department of Agriculture,

Albany, January 15, 1909.

To the Honorable the Legislature of the State of New York:

In accordance with the provisions of the statutes relating thereto, 1
have the honor to transmit herewith the Twenty-first Annual Report of
the Agricultural Experiment Station at Cornell University.

R. A. PEARSON,
Commissioner of Agriculture.

ORGANIZATION

Of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE agricultural COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.

ROBERT H. TREMAN, Trustee of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station.

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS. Treasurer of the University.

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

EXPERIMENTING STAFF

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.

T. LYTTLETON LYON, Soil Investigations.

H. J. WEBBER, Plant Breeding.

B. M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology.
JOHN L. STONE, Farm Practice.
JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. '
MARK V. SLINGERLAND. Entomology.
GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.
ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soils.

W. A. STOCKING, Jr., Dairy Bacteriology.
HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.
G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops.
LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.
CHARLES S. WILSON, Pomology.
M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.
CHARLES F. CLARK. Agronomy.
JAMES A. BIZZELL, Soil Investigations.

C. A. PUBLOW, Dairy Industry.
CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology.

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry.
P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

D. REDDICK, Plant Pathology.

E. R. MINNS, Farm Practice.
G. A. CRABB, Soils.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New
York State who request them.

4

Z"^ ''^^^

November 30, 1908.

The Governor of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y.,
The Secretary of the Treasury, Washington, D. C,
The Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C,
The Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, N. Y.:

The Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1887, establishing Agricul-
tural Experiment Stations in connection with the Land Grant Colleges,
contains the following provision : " It shall be the duty of each of
said stations, annually, on or before the first day of February, to make
to the governor of the state or territory in which it is located, a full
and detailed report of its operations, including a statement of receipts
and expenditures, a copy of which report shall be sent to each of said
stations, to the said Commissioner of Agriculture, and to the Secre-
tary of the Treasury of the United States."

And the Act of the Legislature of the State of New York, approved
April 12, 1906, providing for the administration of the New York
State College of Agriculture at Cornell University contains the fol-
lowing provision : " The said university shall expend such moneys
and use such property of the state in administering said college of
agriculture a^ above provided, and shall report to the commissioner
of agriculture in each year on or before the first day of December, a
detailed statement of such expenditures and of the general operations
of the said college of agriculture for the year ending the thirtieth
day of September then next preceding."

In conformity with these mandates I have the honor to submit on
>^ behalf of Cornell University the following report:

^ The dedication of the new buildings of the College of Agriculture

»^^ made the year 1906-1907 a memorable one in the history of agricul-

^ tural education in the State of New York. Accordingly in the Report

for that year the whole subject was discussed at considerable length

by the President as well as by the Director. It was recognized that

the age called for cultivated intelligence and scientific methods in all

branches of agriculture. The agricultural condition of the State was

,^ described as well as the efforts which the College of Agriculture was

^"\naking to improve that condition. The liberal appropriations made

O^by the last Legislature enable the College to continue and augment

CTJthose efforts. Besides the regular fund g1 *^i 50,000 for maintenance

in the appropriation bill, the supply bill carried special appropriations

CD

6 Report of the President.

of $30,000 for glass houses and $10,000 for extension work on farms
and with farmers.

But the great event of the year for the College of Agriculture was
the purchase by the University of additional farm land. The Legis-
lative Act (chapter 655 of the Laws of 1904), appropriating $250,000
for buildings for the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell
University, contained the provision that " nothing in this act shall
be construed to relieve Cornell University of any of its obligations to
the State to provide for instruction in agriculture or otherwise and
the provisions of this act are intended to provide additional facilities
therefor." Recognizing this obligation the Trustees of the University
have ever had in mind the needs and requirements of the College of
Agriculture and so far as has been possible they have endeavored to
provide for those needs. An enlargement of the University farm was
earnestly recommended, first by Director Roberts and, since, by Di-
rector Bailey. The President strongly indorsed these recommenda-
tions but the Trustees, while concurring therein, were not agreed that
the time for action had arrived. The increase, however, in the number
of students in the College of Agriculture, the erection by the State
of large buildings for the use of the College, and the generous pro-
vision made by the State for its support, all combined, along with the
continuously increasing inadequacy of the present farm, to convince
the Trustees that additional lands should be secured at once, espe-
cially as local conditions were at the moment particularly favorable
for purchase. The matter was accordingly referred to a committee
with the rcsuU that a number of farms were purchased from dififerent
owners, which, in combination with former holdings, gives the New
York State College of Agriculture 579 acres for farming purposes, be-
sides providing 100 acres for the New York State Veterinary College
for an experimental station for sick animals.

Now that the University has greatly enlarged its farms, it will be
possible, if State funds are available, to add to the live stock of the
College, which is needed as material both for demonstration to
students and research by professors. New York State produces about
one-ninth of the hay and forage of the United States, and the animal
industries of the State are of enormous value. This is a field, there-
fore, to which the instruction and investigation of the College should
be peculiarly directed, and the State appropriation of $25,000 for barns
has solved the problem of housing facilities as the purchase by the
University of land has solved the problems of pastures and fodder.

The work of the College of Agriculture and of the Federal Experi-

Report of the President. 7

ment Station at Cornell University is very varied and extensive. For
a complete description of it I beg to refer you to the accompanying
reports of the Director and the heads of the several departments,
which are to be regarded as an integral part of this report. Instruc-
tion and research in agriculture are necessarily expensive. The Fed-
eral Government holds the Stations to strict accountability for all
their expenditures, w^hich are regularly reported with expenditures
itemized. This report includes a statement of the expenditure of
State funds, which are all carefully guarded by the State Commis-
sioner of Agriculture. The list of the staff of instruction in the New
York State College of Agriculture and the Federal Experiment Sta-
tion on September 30, 1908, is also given. And for further informa-
tion there are appended the series of bulletins of the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Nos. 250 to 258 inclusive, the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station circulars, Nos. i to 3 inclusive, the Cornell Reading-
Course for Farmers leaflets, Series VIII. Nos. 36 to 40 inclusive, the
Cornell Readmg-Course for Farmers' Wives leaflets, Series VI, Nos.
26 to 28, th-e Home Nature-Study Course leaflets, new series. Vol. IV,
Nos. I to 4 inclusive, and the Cornell Rural School leaflets. Vol. I,
Nos. 2 to 9 inclusive.

The departmental reports may be summarized as follows :

I. Department of Farm Crops. — Probably the greatest immediate re-
turns for the money invested in this department are secured from the
farm survey work which is directed (i) to the study of specific crops
and (2) to the study of farming as a business. Under the first head
forty-seven co-operate experiments in testing grass mixtures and in
the methods of treatment of pastures have been started and the de-
partment is now taking up the study of pasture conditions throughout
the State preparatory to increasing the number of experiments in this
line. Experiments have also been undertaken to determine the cause
and remedy for clover crop failures but the most important research
work of the year was the agricultural survey of Tompkins county, of
which the field work is now practically completed, and it is proposed
to extend this work to other sections of the State covering areas which
will represent most of the types of farm conditions in New York.
This work is of the second type mentioned above.

This department gave instruction to 203 registered students dur-
ing the year while in the field of extension work the staff devoted
about one-fourth of its time to answering farmers' letters in addition
to giving numerous lectures at farmers' meetings. A large number of

8 ~ Report of the President.

co-operative experiments were also carried on with farmers through-
out the State, including 229 new experiments started iduring the year
and 212 others continued from the previous year.

II. Department of Farm Practice. — The investigations being con-
ducted by this department consist of experiments with fertilizers for
mangel-wurzel, a comparison of the cost of producing dry matter in
crops grown for silage and in root crops, and a study of the durability
of roofing materials used on the College farms. Co-operative experi-
ments (total 126) have also been conducted with seventy-five farmers
along the following lines: Potatoes, test of varieties; corn, tests of
varieties ; soybeans, grown in corn for silage ; spraying for the de-
struction of wild mustard ; a test of mangels as a substitute for pur-
chased concentrated feeds. The purchase by the University of addi-
tional farm lands, as mentioned above, will add greatly to the facilities
of this department but like nearly every other department in the Col-
lege, it is seriously cramped for room in which to carry on the work
of instruction to students.

III. Department of Experimental Plant Breeding.- — As this department
was not organized until April, 1907, the experiments have been under
way but one season but a number of investigations have been started
which should prove of great value to the agricultural interests of the
State. New York is a State of diversified agriculture but the hay
crop far outranks all others in total acreage and value of product,
reaching in 1907 a total of 4,717,000 acres with a valuation of $93,388,-
000. Timothy constitutes much the larger portion of the hay crop
and probably greatly exceeds in value any other crop grown in the
State. Accordingly the efforts of this department have been directed
toward the improvement of this crop by proper methods of breeding
and selection, looking not only to increased productivity, but also to
the development of rust resistant varieties, this disease having
wrought considerable damage to the crop during the past year in
every section of the State. It is of course too early to look for defi-
nite results from this work but the progress of the experiments thus
far gives every reason to believe that improved varieties will result
which will be of s^reat value.

In like manner experiments have been undertaken looking to the
production of early races of dent corn, this being recognized as the
most important problem in corn-breeding in New York, while still
other investigations have in view the improvement of the oat, wheat,
and potato crops, and of other forage crops than timothy. But the line
of scientific investigation that is receiving most attention is the study

Report of the President. 9

of variation, which lies at the foundation of all breeding work, and
these studies are being supplemented by investigations on the laws of
heredity in hybridization, the cumulative action of selection, and the
influence of environment in species and variety formation.

The extension work of this department is expected to be limited
but a number of lectures have been delivered before farmers' meetings
and co-operative breeding experiments have been arranged with about
twenty-five farmers in various parts of the State.

IV. Department of Plant Physiology. — Both the teaching and investi-
gation work in this department began February i, 1908. The depart-
ment receives no Federal funds for research but it is hoped to make
investigations, both fundamental and practical, an important phase
of the work. The special lines now receiving attention are (i) ob-
servations on environmental factors in relation to the growth of
field crops, (2) a fundamental study of the effects on the plants of
environmental factors by isolation methods, (3) shade tent investiga-
tions to determine the effects of shading on the minute structure and
composition of plants, (4) stimulation experiments by the use of non-
nutrient salts, (5) nitrogen fixation by fungi, etc.

V. Department of Plant Pathology. — The research work of this de-
partment has been directed toward the further investigation of grape
diseases, particularly the black-rot of grape, the base of operations
having been changed from the Lansing vineyards to other infected
vineyards in the vicinity of Romulus. The investigator in charge was
on the ground throughout the entire season and much valuable data
has been collected regarding dissemination, infection, and methods of
control. The investigation of diseases affecting the bean crop have
also been continued, the field laboratory for this work being located
on the farms of the Burt Olney Canning Company of Oneida, while
considerable attention was also devoted to the study of the black-rot
of gladiolas, the apple scab fungus, hollyhock diseases, the peach leaf
curl, and fire blight in nurseries.

On the side of extension work the department has carried on a large
correspondence with individual farmers throughout the State answer-
ing specific inquiries in regard to crop diseases, this correspondence
approximating during some months as many as 200 letters per week.
Much good has also been accomplished by the exhibits which have
been made at the State and county fairs, which will hereafter be a
fixed feature of the extension work in all departments.

VI. Department of Soils. — In addition to giving instruction to 166
registered students during the College year, this department has been

lo Report of the President.

conducting investigations into several problems of fundamental im-
portance in soil management, notably the principles of soil granulation
and some phases in the movement of soil moistures. But the most
prominent form of activity of the department outside of University
teaching is the extension work, which, while taking the usual form of
correspondence and lectures, addresses and exhibits before farmers'
meetings and at agricultural fairs, was largely concerned with the soil
survey of the State. This work, fundamental as it is to practically
every phase of farm and orchard investigation, strikes at the very
basis of the proper understanding of the so-called " abandoned farm "
problem of the State. Soil surveys on a scale of one inch equal to one
mile were conducted in Livingston and Montgomery counties and on
September 30th there had been mapped approximately 496 square
miles of the former area and 284 square miles in the latter.

VII. Department of Soil Investigation. — The purpose of this depart-
ment, established and administered in the spirit of the Hatch Act, is
to conduct investigations into the principles underlying those prop-
erties of the soil that affect its productiveness. While in the course
of these investigations some results will be obtained that will be of
immediate benefit to farmers and others who are engaged in growing
crops, the larger part of the returns will contribute to that knowledge
of the properties of soils and their relation to plant growth, the pos-
session of which is necessary for the intelligent conduct of the more
immediately practical experiments. At present four main lines of in-
vestigation are being carried on, (i) the effect of moisture and tem-
perature on the availability and utilization of plant nutrients in the
soil, and the relation of this to crop production, (2) the influence of
certain atmospheric conditions on the absorption of mineral nutrients
by plants, (3) a study of certain unproductive soil with special refer-
ence to the activities of its bacterial flora, and (4) the character and
concentration of the aqueous extract of a soil under different methods
of treatment. A system of twenty-four concrete tanks of sufBcient
size to produce plants in a normal manner under approximately field
conditions have been provided for these soil investigations.

VII. Department of Horticulture. — Under the supervision of this
department the truck farm survey of Long Island begun a year ago
was continued, this being, so far as known, the first systematic survey
of vegetable growing to be undertaken by any experiment station.
Long Island was selected as being the most favored region in the
state for trucking and the data now accumulating promise to be of
great interest and value to the men engaged in this industry. Inci-

Report of the President. ii

dentally, too, in view of the thousands of acres in the interior of Long
Island now producing nothing but scrubby growths of pine, oak, and
chestnut, it is hoped to show that great opportunities here await the
farmer of small means. The information gathered concerns soils,
crops, methods, labor, harvesting, marketing, and the like. The de-
partment also worked in co-operation with the Department of Plant
Pathology on the investigation of the black-rot of grape and one bul-
letin on this important question has been published giving the results
of the experiments thus far, which show that the disease may be con-
trolled by the use of fungicides. Other investigations included an
inspection of peach yellow and little peach conducted during the
summer in the orchards of the Youngstown district, Niagara county,
while the studies commenced on the peony in co-operation with the
American Peony Association four years ago have been continued.
But perhaps the most important piece of work which this department
has in hand is the Cornell orchard survey, this movement combining
the features of a census and those of a biological study. Surveys of
six counties have now been completed, namely, Wayne, Orleans,
Niagara, Monroe, Ontario, and Orange, and it is proposed to extend
still further this exceedingly important line of horticultural exten-
sion effort.

IX. Department of Entomology. The courses announced by this de-
partment had a total enrollment during the year of 378 students and
in addition to carrying on this work of instruction several members of
the staff have been engaged in the preparation of text-books for the
use of students and general readers, including a " Manual of the
Spiders of the United States," a book on " Insects Injurious to
Fruits," a work consisting of tables for the identification of the insects
of the northeastern United States, a text-book on " Insect Mor-
phology," and a text-book on " General Biology." Other research
work was concerned with insects and Crustacea that serve as the food
of fishes, and extensive studies of certain injurious insects, including
the habits and life history of the Timothy joint-worm and other
Isosomas infesting grains and grasses, with a view to devising a
method to prevent the injury caused by these insects, a study of the
apple-seed chalcis, grape-seed chalcis. and other seed-infesting chalcid-
flies, a study of a new leaf-miner of the plum, etc. The extension
work of this department consisted of an extensive correspondence
regarding injurious insects, a few co-operative experiments with
farmers in spraying, and attendance at fairs with exhibits of injurious
insects.

12 Report of the President.

X. Department of Dairy Industry. — The number of students enrolled
in the various courses offered by this department more than doubled
during the past year, the registration of regular students aggregating
368 as against 183 the preceding year. Instruction was also given to
143 additional students in the short winter courses, and in addition
to this the extension work carried on by this department included a
heavy correspondence with various residents of the State who were
seeking information in regard to some phase of dairy work, addresses
before farmers' institutes and granges, and the systematic testing of
over 200 individual cows in 22 different herds for the purpose of
demonstrating methods by which the farmer may discover which are
his unprofitable cows, how to keep a record of individual animals, and
how he may produce more milk. Research work has also been carried
on along several lines, including experiments in the manufacture of
Camembert cheese, and a careful scientific study of the fermented
milk drinks now on the market in this country. Experiments in the
manufacture of cheddar cheese have produced some very interesting .
results which have been used by the State Department of Agriculture
as a basis for regulating the sale of this type of cheese, and con-
siderable work has been done on methods for market milk inspection,
including a practical demonstration locally which has resulted in a
marked improvement in the quality of the milk coming into the city
of Ithaca.

XL Department of Animal Husbandry. — This department enrolled 166
regular students during the first term of the college year and 138
students during the second term, besides giving instruction to 265
short winter course students during the winter months. The research
work comprised mainly feeding experiments, (i) to determine the
usefulness of various artificial foods in raising calves without milk,
(2) on the use of roots instead of concentrated foods in the production
of milk, (3) on the utilization of skimmed milk in feeding pigs, (4)
on the possibilities of profitable beef-production in New York State,
(5) the economy of production of winter lambs, and, finally, a co-
operative experiment has been inaugurated with feeders of lambs in
Genesee county to determine, if possible, the causes of loss of lambs
by apoplexy, which is common in that vicinity. The larger part of
the extension work in this department is comprised in supervising
the records of the production of pure-bred cows belonging to various
herds, involving 1,265 Holstein cows and 11 Guernsey herds, 5 Jersey
herds and i Ayrshire herd.

Report of the President. 13

XII. Department of Poultry Husbandry. — This department gave in-
struction to 167 registered students during the year. For the first
time investigational work was segregated from the work of instruc-
tion and was greatly strengthened thereby, two members of the staff
giving practically their whole time to the eighteen investigational
projects under way. Two bulletins were prepared for publication, one
on the " molting of fowls " and the other on " use of grit," and
under the head of extension work over 8,000 letters were written in
response to inquiries on poultry subjects, and seven lessons on poultry
were prepared for the Rural School leaflets, besides a number of ad-
dresses before farmers' gatherings.

XIII. Department of Farm Mechanics. — As this department but re-
cently organized and is not yet fully established no investigations of
any kind were attempted. During the coming year, however, there
will be made a thorough investigation of spray nozzles which it is
hoped will prove of much practical value. But next to giving instruc-
tion to students in farm mechanics, farm engineering, farm machinery,
and allied subjects, the department will probably find its most im-
portant function in acting as consulting engineer for the farmers of
the State in matters pertaining to the selection of their farm ma-
chinery. This, of course, is a phase of the work which will require
the most delicate handling as the greatest care must be exercised to
avoid injuring the trade of any manufacturer by carelessly condemn-
ing his goods without just cause, but on the other hand the farmers
of the State will expect and may justly demand expert advice, and it
is the policy of the department to issue no statements either deroga-
tory or commendatory in regard to any implement or machine unless
such statement is founded on facts obtained by accurate tests under
thoroughly fair and fully specified conditions.

XIV. Department of Agricultural Chemistry. — The Department of
Agricultural Chemistry enrolled during the year 48 regular and 75
special students in addition to 125 students from the short winter
courses, who attended a course of lectures arranged for them. The
experimental work conducted under the appropriation from the State
fund consisted chiefly in making chemical analyses of materials sent
in by other departments, including a large number of moisture de-
terminations of farm crops grown for experimental purposes. There
has also been a large increase in the number of requests from resi-
dents of the State for analyses of various materials as soils, fertilizers,
feeds, insecticides, etc., and this work now takes most of the time of
the assistant in the laboratory. During the coming year investiga-

14 Report of the President.

tions on moisture and sulphur content of evaporated apples will be
continued.

XV. The Farmers' Reading Course (maintained by State appropri-
ation) enrolled during the past year 1,523 active readers, of whom 998
were new members of the course within the year. In addition to these
there were 5,100 other readers not enrolled as active, making the total
distribution of the Farmers' Reading Course leaflets 6,623. In addi-
tion to supervising these reading courses the department has pro-
vided a large number of lectures before farmers' organizations
throughout the State, and close attention has also been given to cer-
tain phases of extension work in the schools of the State, especially
in the introduction of agriculture into the country school and the high
school.

XVI. Department of Home Economics. — As the College of Agricul-
ture has been an experiment station for the farm so it is becoming an
experiment station for the farm home. The Farmers' Wives Read-
ing Course conducted under the supervision of the Department of
Home Economics enrolled during the past year 23,709 readers, x^t-
tention has also been given to the organization of farmers' wives
clubs, and there are now 31 active clubs, with a total membership of
900. But probably the most important new step taken by this de-
partment during the year was the inauguration of a regular four-
year course in home economics as an outgrowth of the reading course
and of the winter course in home economics which was established
three years ago. The laboratory which has been equipped in prepara-
tion for this regular instruction in the problems of the home was not
ready until February. 1908, so that no students were able to register
for the four-year course last year, but two general courses which were
offered in home economics in the second term had a registration of
36 students.

XVII. Rural School Education and School Gardening.- — The major
part of the work in this department is a correspondence course for
teachers and children in rural districts which reached during the
past year 41.000 school children and 4,000 teachers in New York State.
As a basis for the educational Avork there were published each month
the Cornell Rural School leaflets, one for teachers and one for chil-
dren. The leaflet lessons covered not only general outdoor study for
the younger children but also elementary agriculture for the pupils
in more advanced grades. Attention has also been given to the or-
ganization of farm girls' clubs and farm boys' clubs throughout the
State, the purpose of the department being to aid in every way pos-

Report of the President.

15

sible the boys and girls living in the country, to give suggestions
for the better handling of farm work, for better reading, and for
better forms of amusement in and about the farm home. The in-
struction in school gardening found its best expression in the Chau-
tauqua Summer School conducted by this department, the work there
consisting, first, of general nature study and biology, and, secondly,
school gardening and elementary agriculture. This work is carried
on by the College of Agriculture in co-operation with the Chautauqua
Institution, the latter bearing a portion of the expense, and 80 students
were registered in the class during the past summer.

XVIII. Home Nature Study Course. — The subject-matter in this
course has followed the suggestions contained in the syllabus of
nature study issued by the State Department of Education, and covers
the more important work of the fourth grade and some subjects in
the fifth grade. There were issued during the year four leaflets and
one supplement, making in all 128 pages, containing 76 nature study
lessons and also detailed directions for planting and garden work.
Each lesson was accompanied by a statement indicating the object of
the lesson, the material needed, and the best way to secure it, and
in connection with the series of questions covering the observations
v/hich the pupils should make there was a paragraph giving the
teacher the facts concerning the topic and suggestions as to the
method of teaching it. For the present there is provision for only
5,000 copies of each leaflet, and the demand is so great that the en-
tire issue is now called for with the exception of 250 copies which
have to be reserved for the files. Indeed, it was found necessary in
some cases to send only one leaflet for two pupils in many of the
training classes.

XIX. Department of Rural Art. — The aim of this department is to
bring to the people, particularly of the rural districts, a better under-
standing of the beauty of their home surroundings, and to train the
individual in methods of landscape design. The courses offered are
meeting with an increased registration of students as the department
is becoming better known, but it is also the policy of the department
to bring to bear as strong an influence as is possible in the improve-
ment of rural' school grounds. To accomplish this the department
will publish, through the teachers' leaflets issued by the College of
Agriculture, a series of short articles on " Rural Art — Its Meaning
and Possibilities," in connection with which it is proposed to give
practical demonstrations to selected schools in various counties of
the State.

1 6 Report of the President.

It will be observed, therefore, that the activities of the College of
Agriculture continue to be maintained along the three well-marked
lines of instruction to students who attend the College, extension
work among the farmers of the State and their families as well as
teachers in the schools, and investigation and experimentation both
in the laboratories of the College and on selected farms throughout
the State. The goal is an enlargement of agricultural knowledge, a
better education for farmers, and scientific method applied to the or-
ganization of their industries.

That the College and Experiment Station are doing their work
vvell. and that they are rendering a real and valuable service to the
entire State is amply shown in these reports of the professors in
charge of the several departments of study and investigation, but it
should be stated that the facilities of the College, both in men and
means, are now taxed to their full capacity by the greatly increased
registration of agricultural students, and as the Director points out,
it has already become a serious question whether in Anew of the
present crowded condition of classrooms and laboratories it will not
be necessary to consider soon the matter of limiting the number of
students. This, of course, would be nothing short of a calamity for
it is the function of the College to minister in terms of higher educa-
tion to the agricultural needs of the whole State, and the institution
would signallv fail in its first dutv if it should be forced to close its
doors to any citizen of the State who is mentally and physically fitted
to pursue and profit by its instruction. But here, at least, time and
space have their fixed limits, and some such recourse will be neces-
sary unless additional facilities are soon furnished both in teachers
to carry on the work of instruction and investigation and in room
in which this work may be conducted. It is hoped, therefore, that
the legislature and the State, which are already so deeply committed
to the support of this important work, will hear the appeal of the
great rural interest of the State as they are expressed in these press-
ing needs of the New York State College of Agriculture.

Respectfully submitted,

J. G. SCHURAIAN,

President of Cornell Universitx.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR.

To the President of Cornell University:

Sir. — I herewith submit my report of the College of Agriculture
for the year ended September 30, 1908. This report includes an ac-
count of the general operations of the Experiment Station part of
the College for the year ended June 30, 1908. It consists of reports
submitted by each of the separate departments, including the work
of the departments in regular teaching, extension, and investigation,
together with recommendations as to the most important needs of
the departments for their best development.

These different departmental reports sufficiently indicate the status
of the College and the main needs, without further comments from
me. They all agree in showing that the College of Agriculture is
now pressed almost to its fullest capacity by the numbers of students
and by the demands for work in all parts of the State. In fact, the
College is now confronted with the prospect of limiting the number
of students. It will be unwise to accept a much greater number of
students than we now have without an increased staff and additional
facilities. The instruction is largely personal, the student himself
working with the materials rather than merely receiving lectures and
reciting from texts. It is of the utmost importance that this personal
method be maintained and its effectiveness even increased, even if it
becomes necessary to set an arbitrary limit to the number of students.
I think that 500 regular, special and post-graduate enrollments should
be the outside limit with the present staff and equipment, and this
limit we shall probably reach or overpass this coming year. This
number of students fills all the laboratories and lecture-rooms and
consumes all the time and strength of the present instructing staff;
the addition of the winter-course students taxes the accommodations
quite beyond the possibility of doing the best work.

I think that these facts should be publicly known. The College
is set by the State to serve the needs of the State; how fully we
can meet these needs will depend on the extent to which the State
provides the means.

Respectfully submitted,

L. H. BAILEY,
Director Nezv York State College of Agriculture.
17

DEPARTMENT OF FARM CROPS.

The. work of the Department of Farm Crops is of three kinds:
(i) Teaching work; (2) Extension work; (3) Investigation.

Teaching Work.
The overcrowded condition of the laboratory made it impossible
to get the work as well organized as was desired. This was particu-
larly felt by the graduate students, who had no room in the depart-
ment during the second term. This condition has now been partly
relieved, but there is still insufficient room as is mentioned in a special
report on that subject.

The following students were registered in the department :

FIRST HALF YEAR

Students.

Farm Crops, 11 33

Farm Crops, 13 . . , 16

Farm Crops, 15 16

Graduates 8

(iraduates (in absentia) 2

75

SECOND HALF YEAR

Students.

Farm Management, 12 44

Farm Crops. 1 1 1 (specials) 47

Farm Crops, 14 13

Farm Crops, 15 12

Graduates 10

Graduates (in absentia) 2

128

Total registrations for both terms 203

18

Department of Farm Crops. ig

Number of hours of instruction given (registration multiplied by
hours per week not including work of graduates) :

First term 182

Second term ocg

Total for year ,♦ C41

Proposed changes in courses. — It was hoped that a course in Farm
Management might be offered for specials this year, also an addi-
tional course in Forage Crops and one in Advanced Laboratory
work. These courses all had to be postponed until next year, when
it is hoped that there will be facilities and teaching force sufficient
to offer them.

Extension Work.
■ Fifty-three per cent, of the salaries and running expenses of the
department has been expended for extension work, if we include the
surveys and co-operative experiments under this head.

About one-fourth of the time of the writer is required for answer-
ing farmers' letters and correspondence with co-operative experi-
menters. Professor White and the writer have spent five weeks
lecturing at farmers' meetings. A total of twenty-three weeks of ad-
ditional time of either Professor White or the writer has been spent
in co-operative experiment work, survey work, attendance at fairs,
and the like.

This department did not have sufficient funds to continue those
lines of co-operative experiment work that required much expense.
Some of these experiments were dropped and others were continued
by the Department of Farm Practice. The following experiments
were started during the year :

Alfalfa 123

Vetch 16

Clover 4

Pasture experiments (No. no) 19

New seeding pastures 15

Old seeding pastures 13

Fertilizers for meadows 25

Farm accounts 14

229

20 Department of Farm Crops.

A considerable number of experiments were continued from last
year, probably most of the following:

Alfalfa (two previous years) 171

Pastures . . . . 19

Clover 16

Bookkeeping- 6

Research Work.

Agricultural survey. — The most important research work being con-
ducted by the department is the Agricultural Survey of Tompkins
count3^ The field work for this survey is now practically completed.
There is a very large amount of tabulation still necessary. This will
probably be completed by the end of the present year.

PVork on pastures.- — About one-third of the improved farm lands
of New York State is in pastures, but little attention has yet been
given to pasture problems. The department has had a few pasture
experiments running for a number of years. This year, 47 co-opera-
tive experiments of testing grass mixtures and methods of treatment
were started. Professor White is now taking up the pasture ques-
tion and making a study of pasture conditions in the State, prepara-
tory to increasing the number of experiments in this line.

Clover failures. — Field experiments in the growth of clover on soils
where it once grew but now fails, have been conducted for the past
two years. A bulletin giving the results of this work is being pre-
pared. The work was started by the writer and has been continued
by a graduate student, Mr. Squiers. Other pieces of research work
that have been conducted by students and which are worthy of pub-
lication, are :

" The Incomes of 194 New York Farmers." by Mr. M. C. Rurritt.

" Correlations of Certain Characters in the Maize Plant," by Mr.
C. E. Craig.

" The Study of Rice," conducted by a Chinese student, ]\Ir. Y. H.
Tong.

The writer understands that the last mentioned work will probably
be published by the United States Department of Agriculture.

It is understood, of course, that work done by graduate students is
performed by thcni without expense to the State.

Department of Farm Crops. 21

Proposed Work.

As soon as funds are available, the department should have op-
portunity to lay out an extended series of field plot tests, including
such questions as crop rotation and many other crop experiments.
These would be very useful in teaching work and would be a source
of much interest to visiting farmers as w^ell as a source of scientific
information.

The Tompkins County Survey might well be followed by the owner-
ship and management of a farm in the so-called " abandoned farm "
section.

An agricultural garden would be of much value to the entire Col-
lege as well as to the Department of Farm Crops. Such a garden will
be developed as rapidly as funds are available. This year 39 varieties
of corn were grown in order to get the land in condition for future
use.

If one person could give his entire time to co-operative experi-
ments, these could be made of great benefit to the farmers. Probably
less attention has been given to such experiments during the past
year than during any other recent year.

The studies of pastures and co-operative experiments along this
line should be greatly increased.

Probably the greatest returns for the money invested in this de-
partment are secured from the survey work. There are two types
of this w^ork that should be continued. One is the study of specific
crops and the other the study of farming as a business. The pasture
experiments and pasture work would include work of the former kind.
The Tompkins County Survey is of the latter type.

In the Tompkins County Survey the department has worked out
methods so that it is ready for extending the work to other counties.
The writer should like to take up the study of a township in one of
the farming sections of western New York during the next summer ;
also a township in St. Lawrence or Jefiferson county, and one town-
ship between Albany and New York city. These, together with the
work which has been done in Tompkins county, would give areas
that would represent most of the types of farm conditions in New
York.

Among the crop-survey problems which it would be well to take
up are the timothy hay question, alfalfa, potatoes, corn.

G. F. WARREN,
Assistant Professor of Farm Crops.

DEPARTMENT OF FARM PRACTICE.

Teaching Work.

The number of students in the winter-course in General Agricul-
ture who took the work in Agronomy given by this department was
105, the number of regular and special students who took instruc-
tion in farm practice was 10, and there was one student doing grad-
uate work. The winter-course seemed to be more successful than
ever before, if the enthusiasm of the students in their work and in the
events connected with their stay at the College is an indication of
success. The afternoon work or practicum, however, suffered much
for want of a suitable place in which to conduct it. Some of the
time, afternoon sessions were held in the Auditorium, part of the
seats being removed to secure space for it. For a few sessions the use
of the Farm Corps laboratory was secured.

The work in farm practice is arranged for students who do not
come from farms and, therefore, are not familiar with the common
farm operations. This instruction was given by the writer's assist-
ant, Mr. E. R. Minns, as successfully as the circumstances would per-
mit. The inherent difficulty of providing suitable work and equip-
ment at such hours as the students have available renders it an open
question whether an institution should attempt to provide much such
practice work and whether a student should attempt to secure prac-
tical experience at an institution while pursuing class-room studies.

In addition to the above the writer has given a few lectures on
special crops to the class in Farm Crops.

Investigation Work.

The investigations being conducted by this department consist of
experiments with fertilizers for mangel-wurzel, comparison of the cost
of producing dry matter in crops grown for silage and in root crops,
and a study of the durability of roofing materials used on the Col-
lege farm.

Co-operative experiments have been conducted under the super-
vision of this department with 75 farmers, and the number of experi-
ments undertaken was 126. These experiments were along the fol:
lowing lines: potatoes, tests of varieties; corn, tests of varieties; soy-

22

Department of Farm Practice. 23

beans, grown in corn for silage ; spraying for the destruction of wild
mustard ; a test of mangels as a substitute for purchased concentrated
feeds.

Equipment.

During the year important additions have been made to the area
of farm land available for the use of the College. Much of this area
has not yet been taken possession of and the remaindei was secured so
late in the season that cutting the hay was the only farming attempted
on it. The newly acf|uired area comprises about 380 acres of land,
nearly all of which is in a neglected and depleted condition, but when
brought into good condition will be of great use to the College. Much
of this land, as well as the area previously in our possession, requires
draining before it can be satisfactory for use. To facilitate this work,
the department has secured a Buckeye Traction Ditcher, which is
being used- with success.

Extensive additions have been made to the farm machinery equip-
ment.

J. L. STONE,

Professor of Farm Practice.

DEPARTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT-BREEDING.

This department was organized in April, 1907, and the experiments
have thus been under way but one season, so that little advance has
been made.

Teaching Work.

The principal work of this department is experimental, and only-
such graduate students are accepted as are sufficiently advanced in
training to conduct investigations under direction. Thirteen sucli
graduate students have pursued investigations in the department dur-
ing the last year. Problems directly connected with the investigations
under way, are assigned to such students, and in this way a much
greater amount of work can be accomplished than would otherwise
be possible.

Investigations.

Timothy breeding experiments. — New York is a State of diversified
agricultural interests, but the hay crop far outranks all others in total
acreage and value of product, reaching in 1907, the last year for which
reliable figures are available, a total of 4,717,000 acres with a valua-
tion of $91,388,000. Timothy forms far the greater proportion of the
hay crop and doubtless greatly exceeds in value that of any other
crop grown in the State. Any experiments, therefore, which may
lead to the bettering of this crop, are of the greatest importance to
the agricultural interests of the State.

Methods of experimentation. — The experiments, which are being con-
ducted on a fairly extensive scale, were started in 1903 by Professors
Hunt and Gilmore, then of the Department of Agronomy. The ex-
periments were placed in charge of the Department of Experimental
Plant-Breeding in July, 1907. In beginning the experiments, heads
of timothy were secured from numerous locations in this and foreign
countries, and seed from these was germinated in sterilized soil. The
young plants were grown for a time in pots, after which they were
planted in the field, being placed in rows three feet apart each way.
Of these plants there were originally planted 12,516, the great major-
ity of which are still living.

In 1905. selections were made from these plants of individuals show-
ing various interesting variations, such as heavy yield, light yield,

24

Department of Experimental Plant-Breeding. 25

coarse stems, fine stems, early bloom,' late bloom, and the like. Plants
grown from open fertilized seed of these various selections were
planted in the field in 1905 ; of these, 147 plats of 32 plants each were
grown, making- a total of 4,704 plants.

In the summer of 1907, a careful study was made of all of the plants
and over 200 selections were made, representing many different types.
In the fall of the same year, trial plats were planted from each of
these selections and these plats are now showing very interesting-
developments.

Each year since the beginning of the experiment, records have been
made of the height, duration of bloom, season of maturing, yield, etc.,
of each plant, so that important data is available to serve as a guide
in making the selection of the plants which are most likely to prove
valuable as foundation stocks of improved races.

The methods of improving timothy have never been worked out.
and the first and most important part of the work has thus been to
determine the best methods of breeding this crop. Careful studies
of the progenies of select plants planted in 1905 have shown conclu-
sively that open-fertilized plants are very variable. It is probable that
this great variability is due mainly to the cross-fertilization of dififer-
ent types, or so-called biotypes, many of which are found to exist in
timothy. It would thus seem necessary, if different types are to be
bred into stable races, that the select plants be inbred or that the
progeny be isolated and the results of crossing be slowly weeded out
by continuous selection, which would take a number of generations.
Experiments which have been recorded in literature up to the present
time, indicate that timothy is a strictly cross-fertilized plant and will
not set seed by self-fertilization. The writer took charge of these
experiments too late in 1907 to make extended experiments to de-
termine this point, as all of the plants were past the regular blooming
period. A number of belated heads, however, were inclosed in bags,
and practically all of these set some seed, which proved to be of as
good vitality and vigor as cross-fertilized seed. Further extended ex-
periments made in the spring and .summer of 1908 have shown that
self-fertilized seed can be secured from practically all plants but that
there is apparently a considerable degree of difference in the capacity
of different plants to set seed by self-fertilization. Sufficient seed has
been secured in practically all cases for experimental purposes, and
the fixation of strains by inbreeding would thus seem to be the prac-
tical method of work.

Timothy variations. — Connected with the timothy work, one of the

26 Department of Experimental Plant-Breeding.

problems of considerable scientific interest is the study of the varia-
tions. Timothy has been cultivated for many years yet practically no
attempt has been made to separate out distinct varieties or races. A
study of the numerous individuals in our experimental plats shows
that very great differentiation has taken place. Numerous individuals
can be found exhibiting striking characteristics which are probably
to be considered as mutations in the De Vriesian sense, representing
elementary species or biotypes. These types are distinguished by
difference in height, color, arrangement of leaves, breadth of leaves,
size and shape of head and numerous other differentiating characters,
and are remarkable for their extent and diversity. A careful study of
these variations is being made with the view of determining their true
nature. Plats are being grown from self-fertilized seed of over a
hundred different types, and in many instances these are being grown
in comparison with similar plats planted from open-fertilized seed
and from slips or vegetative parts in order to determine the extent of
variation under different methods of propagation.

Very extensive data has been accumulated during the experiments,
which will give material for a careful statistical study of the range
of variation and the preparation of correlation tables. As an illustra-
tion of the extent of this data it may be stated that the notes taken
for five years annually on over 8,000 plants include weight of product
or yield, height, date of beginning of bloom, date of close of bloom,
and season of maturing. This study should furnish further informa-
tion of importance on the nature and range of variation, than which
in breeding there is no more important problem. It should show the
length of life of timothy and the ranqe of variation in this character
which has already been found to be very great. It should determine
what variations occur that are important in a superior timothy variety
and whether these variations can be perpetuated.

Production of improved varieties. — The studies which have been
made of the variations have shown that we have the foundation varia-
tions for manv important improvements, and would indicate that our
agriculture would gain very much bv the introduction of special-pur-
pose varieties. The individuals which for the first two vears gave the
heaviest yields and which for this reason were selected and propa-
gated were in the fourth year, when the writer took charge of the
experiments, found to be mainly dead. The individuals which in the
third and later years gave the largest yields are all still living. This
indicates that there is probably a crreat difference in the period re-
quired by different strains to reac^^ their most productive age, and

Department of Experimental Plant-Breeding. 27

would suggest that we should have special quick growing and matur-
ing varieties tor short-period rotations, and other varieties for per-
manent or long-period meadows. We should have early, medium and
late varieties in a great hay-producing State like New York, where it
is a decided disadvantage to have the entire hay crop rfiature at the
same time. The various individuals differ from three weeks to a
month in the period of maturing and there is thus no reason why such
varieties should not be secured. Some sorts lodge easily, others are
strong-stemmed and never lodge; some plats are very leafy, others
nearly leafless ; some plants are so constituted that the leaves ripen
and dry up before the head is mature and ready to cut, others retain
the leaves fresh and green when the heads are normally ripe and
ready to cut. All of these important characters are being given care-
ful attention in the breeding work and there is reason to think that im-
proved varieties will result from the experiments which will be of
great value.

Rust resistant timothies.— Rust on timothy (Puccinia graminis) has
in very recent years been rapidly increasing and has now become so
abundant that the crop is being severely injured. The disease is wide-
spread over the State, having been found to be common from the ex-
treme north-eastern part of the State to the extreme south-eastern
part. It is difficult to place an estimate on the general damage to the
crop, but the writer thinks that the crop of the State has been de-
creased at least 2 per cent, from this source the present season. The
impossibilitv of applying any mechanical treatment for such a disease
on a general farm crop such as timothy, renders it imperative that re-
sistant varieties be produced if possible. Fortunately it has been
found that a number of the strains under cultivation are to a large ex-
tent resistant to the disease and we are thus hopeful that resistant
varieties can be produced. Some of the plats from selected plants were
this year almost entirely free from the rust while adjoining plats were
in man3^ instances so severely injured as to have scarcely shown any
growth since the cutting. Such resistant plants put out a vigorous
second growth, while adjoining susceptible plats show only here and
there a weak isolated sprout.

Co rn-hrecding experim en ts.

Practical experiments. — Probably the most important problem in
corn-breeding in New York is the production of early races of dent
corn, which will be sufficiently early to mature seed in normal sea-
sons and still be vigorous enough to give a good yield of grain and

28 Department of Experimental Plant-Breeding.

stover. Selection experiments have been started with three varieties,
Pride of the North, Funk's Ninety Day, and Reid's Yellow Dent, lo-
cated respectively at Aurora, Ballston Lake, and Ithaca. The results
this year have been of special interest with reference to the degree of
carliness. In each case the plant-to-row method was used and in some
progenies at the time of husking practically all of the ears were fully
ripe, while in many other progenies almost every ear was yet soft and
undented. This great variation in degree of earliness and the proof
of the transmission of the character shows, as would be expected, that
considerable advance can be made in this direction.

Scientific studies. — It is of great importance in corn-breeding that
all characters in any degree correlated with high yield and earliness
be discovered in order especially that breeders may be able at the
blooming period to recognize probable good yielding and early plants
through the correlated characters. If such correlations could be found
the breeder would be able more intelligently to select the parents to
be mated in pedigreed breeding and could doubtless make much more
rapid progress than is now possible.

A statistical study of the most easily recognizable character is
being made with two races. Pride of the North and Funk's Ninety
Day, with the hope of securing some valuable data of this kind which
will be of service to corn-breeders. The information should also be of
some value as showing the present range of variation in the various
characters of the races used as now grown.

Cereal investigations.

In the breeding and improvement of cereals a co-operation has been
arranged with the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture, which will permit the work to be prosecuted
on a rather more extensive scale than would otherwise be possible.
These experiments started in the spring of 1907.

Oat experiments. — The oat-breeding work is being conducted with
two main aims in view. First, to secure better yielding strains, and
second, to produce hardy winter oat varieties. In the first instance,
the foundation for the work was furnished by the Department of
Agriculture placing with the Station seed of a large series of oat hy-
brids and selections made by Professor Norton in Illinois, together
with samples of various standard oat varieties. These are beinp-
grown, selected and tested with reference to their adaptabilitv to
New York conditions, and their comparative value in connection with
standard oat varieties. Some of the strains produce exceptionally

Department of Experimental Plant-Breeding. 29

large grains and give promise of value but they will require to be
tested through several years before conclusions can be drawn.

The work on the second problem was started in a small way in the
fall of 1907, when plats were grown of the Virginia Gray Winter oat
from seed grown in Virginia and Connecticut, the seed from the latter
State being secured from the selection plats of the Department of
Agriculture. Plats were planted on two distinct types of soil, and in
each case a considerable percentage of the plants survived the winter,
enough to produce at least over half a crop. In an experiment of this
kind, nature is the main selecting agent, those plants which survive
being considered to be the most hardy. About 300 of the best indi-
viduals that survived the winter have been selected for separate plant-
ing and general plats will be planted with the remainder of the seed.

Wheat experiments. — In the fall of 1907, 126 varieties of wheat were
planted in small test plats and head-to-row plantings were made of
select heaas of a number of varieties. The first work necessary here
is to determine the best foundation stocks by a somewhat careful study
of the varieties. The yields in the summer of 1908 have given some
indication of the best strains, and a considerable number of individual
and head selections of such supposed good strains will be planted in
the fall of 1908.

Potato investigations.

Potato-growing is a very important industry in the State and in
recent years very little work has been done to keep the varieties up
to a high state of productivity. From the great variability of the crop
the majority of the varieties grown would seem to be much mixed
and lack breeding. It is important that some reliable and simple
method of selection or breeding be devised which is adapted to the
use of growers generally. Such a method, it is thought, based on the
use of the tuber as a unit was devised by the writer in conjunction
with Professor Norton and published during the year in Bulletin 251
of this Station. Experiments to test this method more fully were
started in a small way in the spring 1908, using several well-known
varieties.

The extent of bud-variation in the potato and the use to which the
selection of such variations can be put in breeding unproved sorts is
a question of importance, both from the practical and the scientific
standpoint, and some studies of this nature have been started.

30 Department of Experimental Plant-Breeding.

i
Forage-crop investigations.

Some experiments on other forage crops than timothy are being
conducted on a small scale. These are as follows :

(i) Experiments with vetch: (a) An investigation of the growing
of vetch for seed-production and the production of strains that will
give a good crop of seed, (b) An investigation of the methods of
breeding vetches by hybridization and selection.

(2) Experiments with clover: Experiments are being made to test
variation in the hardiness and productivity of individual clover plants
of several species, with the view of conducting careful studies ulti-
mately on this subject. Some forty varieties are being cultivated in
small plats.

(3) Experiments with brome-grass : some few selections are under
test with the following objects in view: (a) To develop a strain of
brome-grass especially adapted for hay and seeding purposes, (b) To
develop a strain of brome-grass especially adapted for pasture pur-
poses.

(4) Alfalfa studies : about 30 different strains are being grown to
test their comparative adaptability and value as foundation stocks
for breeding experiments.

Root-crop investigations.

Some experiments in the breeding of mangels, first started by the
Department of Agronomy, were last year placed in charge of this
department. These experiments have been conducted primarily to
determine the methods of breeding such crops and to determine what
could be accomplished in the production of strains giving a high
yield of dry matter per acre. The relation of specific gravity to per-
centage of dry matter has been studied and some interesting data
has been secured which it is expected will soon be ready for publica-
tion.

Studies of variation.

This line of scientific investigation is being given more attention
than any other subject, as it lies at the foundation of all breeding
work. It is desirable that we thoroughly understand all types of
variation, their cause and use in breeding, and determine whether
the breeder can by any means cause or force variations to occur.
The investigations under way may be classified primarily under the
following heads :

(i) Statistical studies to determine the range of variation and place
effects in wild and cultivated plants growing under different condi-
tion of natural environment.

Depabtment of Experimental Plant-Breeding. 31

(2) Statistical studies of similar plants grown under various arti-
ficial environments to determine, if possible, whether variation in any
given direction can be increased.

(3) Experiments to determine the value of mutations in plant-
breeding.

(4) Experiments to determine the cause and meaning of muta-
tions as distinct from other types of variation.

(5) A study of the mutations of wild plants and their importance
in the formation of new types or species in nature.

(6) Experiments to determine whether it is possible by chemical
injections or other artificial stimulation applied at certain definite
times or continuously, to cause plants to produce mutations or varia-
tions of any type of use to the breeder in securing new strains.

Considerable advance has been made on several of these problems
and it is expected that several papers will be ready for publication
within the next year.

Investigational on the laws of inheritance in hybridization.-

The purpose of these investigations, which are of primary import-
ance in extending our knowledge of the fundamental principles of
breeding, is to get further data with reference, (i) to the general ap-
plication of Mendel's Law of hybrids in different groups of plants ; (2)
to the relative influence of male and female in the offspring; (3) to the
transmission of characters to be expected in hybridization, when
nearly related and distantly related parents are used ; (4) to the limits
of possible hybridization; (5) to the origin of character correlations
of the coherital type and their transmission in hybridization, etc.

Investigations of this nature require considerable time as three
or four generations of hybrids of known parentage must be grown
before safe conclusions can be drawn. Again, in starting the work
strains of known origin must be secured of the forms used in the ex-
periments, and this in some cases may require several years of culti-
vation under controlled conditions. Considerable work of this nature
has been started with tomatoes, phlox, verbenas, peppers, poppies and
other plants. In work of this nature, plants must be selected which
are the best adapted for the particular purpose^ under consideration,
whether or not they are of any practical value. The work of this
nature at first requires but little attention, the amount of work greatly
increasing as the investigations progress. It is expected that some of
the practical experiments outlined above will be completed before
the work on these more scientific subjects reach a stage where they
will demand any great amount of attention.

32 Department of Experimental Plant-Breeding.

Investigation of the cumulative action of selection.

Since the publication of Darwin's classical works, it has been be-
lieved that a continuous selection, generation after generation, of the
individuals exhibiting a character in the greatest degree, would lead
to a gradual augmentation of the character or characters concerned.
The policy of the continuous selection of the best has become one of
the principles of breeding, universally accepted. The investigations
of De Vries on mutations have thrown grave doubt on this principle
as the indication from his work is to the effect that the first selection
of a striking mutation or sport is the all-important matter, and that
followinp; this iirst selection all that remains to be done is to weed out
the effect of crossing and test the comparative value of the new strain
by tests with standard sorts. The continuous selection year after year,
entails a tremendous amount of careful, painstaking labor on the part
of the breeder and if nothing is accomplished by it after the first selec-
tion the methods should be changed. This problem, therefore, is one
that demands careful investigation, and experiments of this nature
have been started, using several varieties of wheat. Here, pure line-
breeding is being used, the selections in each case being taken from
progeny grown from the same head or spike. The investigation will
require to be continued many years to get conclusive evidence ; and
every effort will be made to make the experiments conclusive and
valuable.

Studies on the influence of environment in species and variety formation.

The effect of environment on the evolution of species is still an
unsettled question, demanding attention. We need to know from the
breeding standpoint, how such changes effect the stability of varieties
and species, and whether varieties of a certain type may be better
bred under certain environments than under others. This problem is
being studied as much as time will permit directly in connection with
the investigation of variations. Certain features connected with the
problem, such as the possible inhei;itance of so-called acquired char-
acters, are of special importance and are also receiving some attention.

Extension Work.

The extension work of this department is expected to be limited.
It is necessary, however, that experimenters keep in close touch with
the requirements of the State, so that a limited amount of this work
can be done without interruption to the experimental work and cer-

Department of ilxperimental Plant-Breeding. 33

tainly, in some instances, to its benefit. Tiie work of this nature
done during" the year has been as follows :

(i) Lectures on the general subject of plant-breeding have been
given before Granges, associations of agriculturists and horticul-
turists, farmers' institutes and elsewhere. About fifteen such lec-
tures have been given during the year.

(2) Exhibits have been made at the State Fair and the Batavia
Fair, representing some of the results secured in the experiments.

(3) An active part was taken in the organization of a New York
Plant-Breeders' Association, and such aid was given as possible in
furnishing instructions to guide the active breeding work undertaken
by the members.

(4) Co-operative breeding experiments with New York crops have
been arranged with about twenty-five farmers in various parts of the
State, the department arranging and directing the manner in which
the work is to be performed.

Publications.

The following publications from the Department of Experimental
Plant-Breeding have been issued during the year in the publications
of the Experiment Station :

Plant-Breeding for Farmers, by H. J. Webber, Bulletin 251, Febru-
ary, 1908, pp. 289-332.

Testing the Germination of Seed Corn, by M. P. Jones, Circular
No. I, March, 1908, pp. 1-8.

During the ensuing year it is planned to issue bulletins (i) on the
timothy experiments, covering studies of variations and life history;
(2) statistical studies of variation in various plants, and (3) studies
on the relation of specific gravity to dry matter in mangels.

Staff and Equipment.

At the beginning of the year, Mr. J. B. Norton, an investigator of
the Department of Agriculture, was appointed Assistant Professor
of Plant-Breeding, and continued in the service of this department
throughout the year. He resigned at the close of the school year to
accept a position again in the Department of Agriculture. Mr. Charles
F. Clark, formerly employed in the Department of Agronomy, has
been transferred to this, department and employed as an instructor.

The following assistants have been employed in connection with
the work for the ensuing year : Mr. Fred J. Pritchard, a graduate of

2

34 Department of Experimental Plant-Breeding.

the University of Nebraska and fornierly Assistant Professor of
Botany in the North Dakota Agricultural College; Mr. Arthur W.
Gilbert, a graduate of the Massachusetts Agricultural College and
of this University, formerly Assistant Professor of Agronomy of the-
University of Maine; Mr. Harry H. Love, a graduate of the Illinois
Wesleyan University and formerly assistant in plant-breeding in the
University of Illinois ; Mr. Eugene P. Humbert, a graduate of the
Iowa Agricultural College and formerly an instructor in the Depart-
ment of Farm Crops of that institution.

The equipment of the department is being gradually built up and
we are now in fairly good condition for the prosecution of the in-
vestigations. A small greenhouse 14 by 50 feet with potting shed
has been erected during the year and is a material aid in connection
with the work. However, it is far too small to accommodate the
needs of the department.

Microscopes, microtomes, chemical apparatus and the like have been
secured in sufficient numbers or quantity to meet present demands.
A small breeding garden, near the College buildings, organized and
run during the past season, has proved a very efficient aid in the
investigations.

Recommendations.

The present needs of this department are primarily for greater
laboratory space. Already the present quarters are overcrowded and,
furthermore, they are poorly adapted to the work in hand. No space
is available to accommodate further graduate students and we have
been compelled to turn students away who would have been of ma-
terial aid in extending the investigations. There is no suitable room
available for storing material under investigation and this has been
a great hindrance to the prosecution of the work. It is earnestly
hoped that steps may be taken to remedy this condition in the near
future.

A second need of considerable importance is that the areas on the
University farm devoted to experimental work be properly fenced.
Experiments are under way which have cost thousands of dollars and
some of these might be destroyed in a night by a stray animal. 'Fhe
writer considers this an imperative need, which cannot safely be de-
layed another year.

H. J. WEBBER,

Professor of Experimental Plant-Breeding.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.

Both the teaching- and the investigation work in the Department
of Plant Phj^siology began February i, 1908. This report is, therefore,
concerned with the teaching work of one term, and with the work of
one growing season, during which time the officers of the department
were one professor and one assistant.

Teaching Work.

During the second term of the academic year, 1907-8, this depart-
ment ofifered two elective courses for undergraduates with suitable
preparation, in which courses students were enrolled as follows :

Plant Physiology 15

Crop Ecology 17

In two subdivisions of the work primarily for graduates, the seminar
and the research work, the registration was as follows :

Seminar 5

Research students 6

In addition, two graduate students registered in horticulture under
the supervision of this department.

In consideration of the number of registrations in undergraduate
work, attention should be called to the fact that Plant Physiology is
not a prerequisite of any other work in the College of Agriculture,
and that, moreover, all students of the College are required to take
a course in Animal Physiology or in Human Physiology, and the
election of Plant Physiology would be in addition to the parallel re-
quired courses mentioned.

Indications are that with the present arrangement, the Depart-
ment of Plant Physiology will be primarily concerned in its teach-
ing work for a year or two with advanced students. Nevertheless,
as shown by the Announcement of Courses for the year 1908-9, an
efifort has been made to provide a course in physiology which will
be of special benefit to agricultural students who expect to return
to the farm. The scope of the work given in the session of 1907-8
will be broadened in future as the facilities permit or the demands
justify.

35

36 Department of Plant Physiology,

Investigation.

This department receives no federal funds, but it is hoped to make
investigations, both fundamental and practical, an important phase
of the work. The experimental work thus far undertaken has been
in the main preliminary, and many of the lines of work proposed
can be made to bear fruitful results only by being continued through
several years. Some special lines of work receiving attention may be
enumerated as follows :

(a) Observations on environmental factors in relation to the growth
of field crops. This line of work involves careful measurements of
conditions, both climatological and edaphic, and will include the
physiological aspect of certain problems in soil fertility.

(b) A fundamental study of the efifects on plants of environmental
factors by isolation methods. In this work, experiments have thus
far been confined to the laboratory, but special greenhouse condi-
tions will be required in order that the work may have proper scope,
and that it may be properly controlled with respect to the factors of
growth.

(c) Shade-tent investigations to determine the efifects of shading
on the minute structure and composition of plants, as well as to de-
termine the practicability of the shade tent in home garden work in
the State. The results of the past season have been notably sug-
gestive and material has been secured for careful histological and
chemical study.

(d) Stimulation experiments by the use of nonnutrient salts have
been conducted on the sweet-pea, the sugar-beet and the radish.
Requisite garden space and funds for adequate field experiments were
not available during the season just closed, but the experiments were
conducted on a scale sufficiently large to give important results which
now require only repetition on a more extensive field scale. The
experiments have thus far included the effects of metallic salts and
halogen compounds. Some positive results have been obtained.

(e) As a phase of the preceding, parallel laboratory experiments
have been made to determine exactly the toxic relations of certain
crop plants to substances which in dilute form are known to possess
stimulating efifects with respect to growth processes. This work has
awakened considerable interest among some of the advanced students
who will now assist by undertaking a special study of some phases
of the problem suggested.

(f) Nitrogen fixation by fungi. The study of nitrogen fixation by
fungi and its bearing on practical agriculture have been begun, and

Department of Plant Physiology. 37

this will be made a prominent feature of experimental work of one
assistant during 1908-9. In connection with this work, an examina-
tion of the effects of commercial preparations of leguminous bacteria
has been made, and some methods of preparing the bacteria are being-
studied.

(g) A problem in enzymatic action has been undertaken, dealing
with the organisms required and the conditions favoring the fermenta-
tion of tannin in commercial products.

(h) Material has been collected for studies on the dytology of some
hybrid agricultural plants.

Extension Work.

The extension work has necessarily been limited because of the
necessity of utilizing a very considerable part of the available funds
for equipment. The department, however, has co-operated in every
manner possible with the Extension Office, and plans to assist in the
preparation of leaflets for the graded schools and for the Farmers'
Reading-Course.

Staff and Equipment.

Mr. Lewis Knudson, assistant in the department during the season
1908, has been appointed instructor for the year 1908-9, and the
staff' has been increased by the appointment for the same year of
Mr. M. M. McCool, B. S. A., University of Missouri, as assistant.

During the period which this report covers, the department had
temporarily teaching and investigation headquarters in a part of the
laboratory of Field Crops. This temporary arrangement prevented
the installation of apparatus required and made it difficult to push
vigorously the general work of the laboratory. During the late
summer, however, a rearrangement of quarters has been effected
whereby the Department of Plant Physiology has been transferred
to the laboratory space on the first floor of the Agronomy building
formerly occupied by the Department of Soils. This must afford for
the season 1908-9 satisfactorv facilities for the teaching work.

I

Recommendations.

It is urged that the efficiency of the wOrk in Plant Physiology, and
it is believed that the efficiency of the work in plant industry gen-
erally, would be greatly enhanced by the establishment and mainte-
nance, as soon as possible, of a plant industry garden. The special
experimental plots of the diverse departments seem only to fill special

38 Department of Plant Physiology.

needs and some general garden conjointly administered would un-
questionably afford valuable material for a large number of depart-
ments, and would permit of the ready investigation of many prob-
lems which may not now be undertaken owing to the impossiblity of
securing material at the time desired.

The most urgent special need of the Department of Plant Physi-
ology is greenhouse facilities, and it is hoped that this will be met by
the plans of greenhouse construction now being developed. Ground
for field experiments is also greatly needed, although the department
makes use of the growing crops planted for general supply purposes.

Owing to the great demand for books along botanical lines by de-
partments widely separated, it is suggested that the development of
the agricultural library with sufficient force to keep the library open
during the hours when the University library is open, will greatly
facilitiate the student and departmental work.

- B. M. DUGGAR,

Professor of Plant Physiology.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY.

Teaching Work.

During- the last year, two University courses were offered in Plant
Pathology, the beginning, half-year course and the advanced full-
year course. There were about 35 students registered in the be-
ginning course and 6 in the advanced course. Because of the torn-up
condition of the laboratories and the necessity of conducting this
work while the workmen were remodeling the rooms, much of the
work was not very satisfactory. However, the increase in the number
of students was gratifying. The teaching work necessarily engaged
a considerable part of the writer's time as well as that of Mr. Red-
dick during the winter months.

Investigation.

The research work during the past year was continued along several
lines begun previously.

The grape-disease investigation, in charge of Mr. Reddick, was con-
ducted in a manner very similar to that of last year. The laboratory
established the year before was changed from the Lansing to the
Cushman vineyards, near Romulus. The work was done, as last year,
in co-operation with Professor Wilson of the Department of Horti-
culture. Mr. Reddick was on the ground throughout the season from
early in June until the middle of October. He has prepared a brief
statement in regard to this work, as follows :

" The black-rot of grape investigation was continued this year ac-
cording to the general plan laid down at the beginning of the work.
The field laboratory at Romulus, N. Y., was maintained during the
entire summer, but was moved to a vineyard which was practically
abandoned. This afforded better opportunity for a study of the dis-
ease-producing organism. In many sections of the vineyard the losses
were total. The very frequent heavy local rains which continued
until nearly the middle of August afforded abundant opportunity
for infection, and much valuable data regarding dissemination, in-
fection, etc., were obtained. Some problems left from last year still
remain unsolved. In co-operation with the Department of Horti-

39

40 Department of Plant Pathology.

culture a spraying experiment was conducted to demonstrate the
method of control of this disease. There were seven acres of vines
in the experimental plat, each acre receiving different treatment.
One acre was left untouched and saved as a check. The results of
spraying with various strengths of Bordeaux mixture were very ap-
parent to the eye and the results will doubtless be very striking.

" The importance of being on the ground was demonstrated in
numerous instances both in the technical and practical work. The
meteorological conditions are peculiar to the immediate vicinity and
can be determined only by being on the ground and studying them.

" Incident to the black-rot investigation, opportunity was afforded
to follow through the season another disease which is proving de-
structive in all the grape-growing regions of the State. The organism
causing the disease has been isolated and some points in the life
history determined ; also an apparent means of control seems to have
been discovered."

Bean-disease investigation was put under the direct charge of Mr. M.
F. Barrus, assistant in the department for the coming year. By co-
operative arrangement, the department was able to establish a field
laboratory on the farms of the Burt Olney Canning Co., Oneida, N. Y.
ITere, beginning the first of July and extending until the latter part
of August, Mr. Barrus continued the investigations made in this de-
partment for the past three years in the study of bean anthracnose
and other diseases of the bean crop. Mr. Barrus had full charge of
the spraying operations on the farms of the company, the main ob-
ject of his work being to determine whether spraying beans as gen-
erally practiced on these farms was profitable or not. Because of
the very dry season, there was relatively little anthracnose. The
general conclusion reached is that spraying beans with Bordeaux
mixture in seasons even when there is no anthracnose may slightly
increase the yield, but not sufficiently to make it profitable.

Mr. Barrus also made studies on the bacterial blight and on the
new stem disease of beans, which causes the top to break over at
about blossoming time. The work will be continued on these farms
during the next two or three years.

Black-rot of gladiolas. — Mr. E. Wallace, a graduate student in the
department has been conducting during the past year, investigations
on the bulb-rot of gladiolas. This bulb-rot seems to be the most
serious disease that gladiola-growers have to contend with, flosses
from this disease alone reach in some cases as much as $8,000 an-
nually. It is hoped that the work on the bulb-rot will be completed

Department of Plant Pathology. , 41

by spring'. A large nunil)cr of experiments in the storing of the bulbs
are now under way, to determine what relation the storage may bear
to the development and severity of the disease.

Apple-scab fungus. — Mv. Wallace has also been conducting investi-
gations of the apple-scab fungus, and has worked out fully most of
the points in the life history of this parasite, having added consider-
able to our knowledge of the development and dissemination of the
winter spores. It is planned to continue this work for several years,
taking up the practical and economic phases of the disease as well as
the spread of the scab in storage ; late infection of the fruits, which
have in certain sections of the State been marked this year; secondary
infection by other fungi through the scab spots, etc.

Hollyhock diseases. — 'An extensive experiment in the control of the
diseases of hollyhocks, particularly the rust, was undertaken this
spring. Mr. Taubenhaus, a graduate student in the department, had
direct charge of the work. Some 130 varieties of hollyhocks were
planted on the grounds of the University farm, on which experiments
with various colorless sprays were performed. Over two thousand
hollyhock plants were included in the experiment, and seven different
spray mixtures were tried. The plants were started in the green-
house and planted out this spring. Relatively little rust appeared
during the present season, so that no conclusions could be drawn in
regard to its control. However, anthracnose was very severe on all
of the plats. Bordeaux mixture which was used on one of the plats
as a check against the other mixtures, showed the most efificiency in
the control of the anthracnose, while the other mixtures were effec-
tive in the following order:

Lime sulfur, Niagara brand, i part in 20 of water.

Copper sulfate, i^^^ solution.

Ordinary ammoniacal copper carbonate.

Soda Bordeaux.

Sulfuric acid.

Potassium sulfid.

Tt is intended to continue this experiment another season at least
in order to check up the results of the past season and to determine
the efTect of these spray mixtures on the rust which is beginning to
appear in great abundance late this season, after the spraying has
ceased.

Peach leaf-curl. — Early last spring a circular letter was addressed
to many of the peach-growers throughout the State asking for in-
formation in recfard to the amount of curl that had occurred on the

42 Department of Plant Pathology,

peach trees in their section, the methods employed for controlling it
and the success of such methods. A large number of replies were
received, owing to the fad that this was an especially favorable sea-
son for the development of the curl, and it is expected that the tabu-
lation of these replies will show interesting facts in regard to the
general practice of peach-growers in controlling this disease, and also
as to the results that may be expected in the years when the disease
is especially severe. It is planned to tabulate the results, and to
present them in the form of a short bulletin some time this winter
or early spring.

Firc-hlight in nurseries. — During the past year, some observations
have been made and field work done in co-operation with a nursery
company in the control of fire blight in the nursery stock. The ap-
parent increase in the amount of blight on apples throughout the
State seems to have extended to the nursery, and the losses in many
nurseries this year were very heavy. However, in the nurseries in
which the co-operative experiments were being conducted there was
relatively little loss this year, although the disease appeared as usual
in manv of the blocks. The recommendations for the control of the
disease in nursery stock were to locate and cut out all old trees or
parts of trees harboring the disease in cankers and blight cankers,
and the careful and systematic cutting out of the blight in the young
trees throughout the season. The work was performed by the
nurserymen under the general direction of this department. The
work seems to have been done eflfectively, for while other nurseries
not far awa}^ suffered from the disease, there was relatively little
loss in the one under the control of this department.

Tlic plant-disease survey zvork was continued in co-operation with
the United States Department of Agriculture. The increase in the
correspondence has been very marked. Many circular letters regard-
ing plant diseases were sent to growers all over the State, and the
replies, together with the reports of the regular plant-disease re-
porters in dififerent sections, give evidence of the general interest
among growers in plant-disease matters. It is expected to continue
this work and to enlarge it next year, as it is thought that in this
way the department can get at many important facts regarding the
general practices and the amount of loss from dififerent diseases.

Extension Work.
The extension work dining the past year has been a continuatidii
of that begun last year. Much of the correspondence of the depart-

Department of Plant Pathology. 43

ment is in the nature of extension work; in fact, most of it may be
properly considered as coming- under this head, as it consists in
answering- inquiries regarding the diseases of crops. The increase
in this kind of correspondence has been gratifying, as the writer feels
that this is evidence that the people of the State are becoming ac-
(|uainted with the department and have confidence in the work that it
is doing. The writer has made it a point always to answer questions
of this sort with care and dispatch, although, owing to the lack of
assistance, important matters have frequently been much delayed.
In connection with this work, there is much need of a laboratory as-
sistant who can give practically all of his time to the work of de-
termining diseases sent in, and to getting the information necessary
for intelligent answers. The correspondence during the past summer
approximated during some months, as much as 200 letters per week.

Much of the increased correspondence and interest in the work,
the writer thinks, is due largely to the exhibits that have been made
for the past three years at the State and county fairs. During the
past year, plant-disease exhibits were made at the State Fair and
four county fairs, namely the Union Fair at Trumansburg, the Chau-
tauqua Fair at Fredonia, the Genesee Fair at Batavia, the Steuben
Fair at Bath. The work that the department has been able to do at
these fairs has been so gratifying that it has established it as a fixed
practice in the extension work, and has this year begun to put the
exhibit in permanent form, having learned during the past three
years about what will best accomplish the purpose and in what con-
dition it can best be transported.

The value of this extension work seems to be mainly along the
following lines: (i) That it puts the department in touch with a
much larger number of people of the State than it could otherwise
hope to meet by individual traveling or to become acquainted with
through correspondence. (2) By bringing to the people of any sec-
tion concrete and living examples of the diseases with which the}^
in particular are troubled, the department is enabled to enlist their
attention and interest more efificiently. To see on the table before
him as he passes before the exhibit, scabby pears, identical in ap-
pearance with what he has at home, or alfalfa entwined with the so-
much-dreaded dodder which he has seen in his neighbor's field, the
grower cannot help but stop to examine and inquire. It has been
made a practice at the fairs this year to pass out to any interested
person a card bearing the names of the staflf of the department and
indicating the particular line to which each man is devoting his time.

44 Department of Plant Pathology.

It is hoped that these cards will serve as reminders to the men who
take them that there is a place in the State where they can look for
assistance in controlling the diseases which give them trouble. That
this is an efficient means of increasing the correspondence is shown
by the fact that the cards are returned frequently throughout the
year accompanied by inquiries for information on certain diseases.

Further, this sort of extension work is most effective since it
brings the department in personal contact with the man whom it is
its business to assist. To be able to talk the matter over with the
man, to get his point of view, and to see what the conditions are in
his particular case, are much more helpful in the final solution of
the problem than even the most extended correspondence can be
expected to be. The department should like as soon as sufficient
funds and assistants are at hand, to attend all of the important
county fairs in the State each year.

Another kind of extension work that the department has been
doing is the attending of farmers' meetings of various kinds, par-
ticularly local Granges and farmers' clubs and societies. A consider-
able part of these meetings have been attended during the past sum-
mer, and talks and discussions given on plant-disease work.

Additions to the Staff and Equipment.

During the past year Mr. Donald Reddick, who last year began the
work on the black-rot of grapes, was made assistant in the depart-
ment. He has devoted the major part of his time to the investiga-
tion work on the black-rot of grapes, a report of which is included
above. A small part of his time during the latter part of the winter
was devoted to teaching advanced students. Mr. Reddick has been
made Instructor for the coming year, and will continue his work-
on the black-rot in the hope that it may be completed and be put in
bulletin form by the end of the year.

During the Easter vacation, the changes and improvements in the
quarters of the department were finally completed, and although the
department had been occupying the rooms during the entire winter,
it was not until this time that it was finally able to organize its
equipment. The beginning course in Plant Pathology, through the
kindness of the Horticultural Department, had been given in one of
their laboratories. This work was transferred to the department's
own quarters at Easter vacation. During the summer, considerable
time has been devoted to putting the quarters into condition for the
work of the year. Much yet remains to be done. The equipment,

Department of Plant Pathology. 45

as a whole, is satisfactory and nearly complete, and is perhaps as
large and efficient as any equipment of its kind in the country. How-
ever, the increase in the number of students taking the work, which
has been about 25;^ this year, taxes the present equipment to its full
extent. Any increase another year will demand more equipment.
Particularly will desks and microscopes, with room to place them, be
needed.

Recommendations.

The writer recommends an increase in the number of assistants
to accomplish the details of the work now in hand. During the past
vear there has been only one assistant, and as his time was devoted
verv largely to research work, there has been practically no help of
any kind to keep the laboratory in condition, and to do the ordinary
laboratory work, which is considerable. The necessity for more help
is urgent.

Next to the need for more help is the need for more room. The
new quarters have been filled during the past year, and the indica-
tions are that there will not be room to house all of the students
who desire to take the work next year. The only alternative will
be to turn away students.

The results of the past year's work have been fully up to the
prospects anticipated in last year's report, and the Department of
Plant Pathology looks forward to another year of work and progress
with much pleasure.

H. H. WHETZEL,

Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology.

DEPARTMENT OF SOILS.

Teaching Work.
During the college year covered by this report there were i66
registrations for instruction, representing 141 persons, some individ-
uals having registered in more than one course. The department
offers seven distinct courses of instruction, two of which are ele-
mentary and are intended, the one for the regular four-year students
who have had full preparation in the natural sciences, the other for
one- or two-year specials who, because of lack of time or other reasons,
prefer a less advanced treatment of the subject. Of the total regis-
tration, 103 were in these courses, which are prerequisite to admis-
sion to the more advanced courses which deal with particular phases
of the subject in its various practical and scientific relations. These
courses may be grouped in two divisions, the one designed for those
persons who are interested in the purely practical application and
desire to secure definite informational facts, the other for those
students who contemplate specialization along soils lines and desire
to prepare for research work or advanced teaching work. In this
latter case the courses are designed to lead up to and give some
practice in independent investigation. Of the remaining 63 regis-
trations in the department, 34 were in the first division and 29 in
the latter division. This embraced 10 students pursuing graduate
work.

Research Work.

The department is conducting investigation into several problems
of fundamental importance in soil management, notable of which
are (i) the principles of soil granulation and (2) some phases in the
movement of soil moisture. Considerable data have been accumu-
lated along these lines.

Extension Work.

The extension work has been the most prominent form of ac-
tivity of the department outside of University teaching. This has
been in four parts, viz.: (i) Teaching and correspondence, (2)
surveys, (3) experimentation, and (4) publication.

(i) Teaching. About a dozen addresses were given before audiences

46

Department of Soils. 47

of farmers either at the college or out in the State in agricultural
gatherings. This work has been kept distinctly secondary because
it greatly interferes with regular University teaching.

Exhibits of an educational character were made at the State fair
and at the Genesee county fair, at both of which special emphasis
was put on the need and effects of better soil drainage through the
State.

A large part of the correspondence of the department is of an ex-
tension character in that it is the answering of inquiries concerning
soil problems. These aggregated several hundred letters during the
year.

(2) Survey. The department feels that the prerequisite to intelli-
gent soil investigation on the farms of the State is a knowledge of
the general soil conditions as they can be determined by field ex-
amination. Not only is the distribution of different soil conditions
determined but much information concerning the relation of these
soils to crop and farm conditions is secured by such methods, which
are absolutely essential to a proper prosecution of practically all
other phases of farm and orchard investigation. The relation is
even more far-reaching than first thought might indicate. And it is
the beginning point and prominent basis for understanding of the
so-called " abandoned farm " problem of the State. Therefore, a
large part of the extension funds available to the department have
been used in this direction. And since the soil distribution and
classification is not limited by State lines but is a part of the national
domain, and because not only could greater uniformity in method
be attained but also because more work for the State could be ac-
complished, these funds have been expended in co-operation with
the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture,
such arrangement having been made with the Secretary of Agricul-
ture and the Chief of the Bureau of Soils through the director's
office and direction. By this arrangement, the College of Agricul-
ture furnishes a man for each man supplied by the Bureau and meets
one-half of the field expenses of the party. The selection of areas to
be surveyed is largely at the suggestion of the College, and while
the reports and maps on such areas surveyed are published by the
Bureau, thev are also available for publication by this College.

During the past season, beginning July i^t. soil surveys on a scale
of one inch equal to one mile were in progress in Livingston and
Montgomery counties, which have an aggregate area of 1,043 square
miles. The College maintained two men in the former area and
one in the latter, and on September 30th there had been mapped ap-

48 Department of Soils.

proximately 496 square miles in the former area and 284 square miles
in the latter area. The completion of this work and the preparation
of the reports will run into the next fiscal year.

(3) Experimental. Under the head of co-operative experiments, a
number of farmers in the State have undertaken work with fertilizers
and methods of tillage. About 18 men have taken up work at the
suggestion of the College.

A more close type of co-operative experimentation was taken up
within the year with Mr. W. B. Howland, of Orange county, New
York, who owns a farm, a large part of which is muck soil, on which
he desires to grow onions. Because there are large areas of such
soil in the State similarly situated, from which the question of fer-
tilizer requirements for the best and most economical growth of cer-
tain crops arises, it seemed best to establish an extensive series of
fertilizer experiments. The work is under the immediate supervision
of this department. It consists of 54 one-tenth-acre plots on which
. onions are grown. It is expected to continue the study for five years,
when the data may be published. Although the season has been very
adverse, some very interesting results have been obtained.

(4) Publications. A bulletin of 40 pages, dealing with Drainage in
New York State, was published in May.

Equipment.

Owing to the occupancy of the new agricultural buildings within
the year, the laboratory facilities of the department have been much
extended and many new pieces of apparatus for the study of soils
have been installed.

Enlargement of the Work.

There are many lines along which the work of the department may
be expanded and improved when funds are available. In the teach-
ing work, a new course in Irrigation and Drainage should be given,
with facilities for demonstration and laboratory study. Some work
along these lines is now given in the regular courses. The proposed
new greenhouses will meet these needs only in part.

A number of pieces of apparatus are needed in the laboratories
to make them entirely adequate for the needs of student work, and
there is much illustrative material, the accession of which would
materially strengthen the teaching in the department.

On the extension side, there is even greater need for more work.
The soil survey should be pushed to completion with increased
rapidity, and with it other lines of investigation should be taken up.

Department of Soils. 49

Three primary lines, aside from the survey, are urged for considera-
tion as soon as funds for them shall be available :

(a) Drainage. A study of the drainage properties of the different
soil types and of the best methods of removing the water from each,
together with a study of the effectiveness and durability of different
types of tile under different conditions of soil and climate.

(b) Fertiliser needs of soil. The department receives many inquiries
from farmers for information as to the best fertilizers for their uses.
While some facts bearing on the mode of action of fertilizers are
still lacking in soil knowledge, it is entirely feasable to gain prac-
tical information about the fertilizer needs of different soils by field-
plot investigation, and it is felt that such information should be ob-
tained on a number of points on the important soil formations of
the State. The special study of the effects of lime is one phase of
the problem ; that of the humus supply is another. Sooner or later
such work must be done.

(c) Soil management. The writer wishes to repeat the suggestions
made in other connections, of the great desirability of the College
securing a farm unit area of the typical hill land of the southern
part of the State for study and demonstration of the possibilities of
managing and improving in a practical way this extensive area of'
soil. It brings to the College some of the most difficult problems.
Its solution does not lay in the domain of any single department.
The soil conditions are one fundamental factor. In the opinion of
the writer, only by combining these various factors into a business
experiment can the maximum of value for the farmer of the present
generation be secured. Such a farm of proper area — the writer
would suggest at least 250 acres — should be typically located and
should be conducted for 10 years as a business experiment.

E. O. FIPPIN.

Assistant Professor of Soils.

DEPARTMENT OF SOIL INVESTIGATIONS.

Status of the Department.

In accordance with the writer's understanding of the nature of the
work for the prosecution of which this department was created, it
has been equipped and its experiments planned with the purpose of
conducting investigations of the principles underlying those proper-
ties of the soil that affect its productiveness. While, in the course
of these investigations, some results will be obtained that will be
of immediate benefit to farmers and others who are engaged in
growing crops, the larger part of the returns will contribute to that
knowledge of the properties of soils and their relation to plant growth,
the possession of which is necessary for the intelligent conduct of the
more immediately practical experimentation.

That the time has come when the continuing and increasing use
fulness of the experiment stations throughout the country is depend-
ent on work of this nature in certain lines of experimentation, is
evidenced by the passage by Congress of the Hatch Act, providing
expressly and exclusively for fundamental research. It is in the
spirit of this act that the work of this department is being prosecuted.

Teaching Work.

Training is given in this department only to graduate students who
are qualified to assist in the investigations, and who are willing to
give sufficient time to the work to follow with thoroughness some line
of experimentation. Registration is thus confined to students taking
their major subjects in this laboratory, and with one exception to
candidates for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. During the past
year five students have received training in this laboratory, being
graduates of the following colleges :

Purdue University, University of Illinois, Agricultural College of
North Carolina. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Iowa Agricultural
College.

A limited number of well-qualified students are an aid to the work,
and take the place of men who, in the absence of student help, would
have to be well paid. Assistance of this kind, however, has the dis-
advantage of requiring considerable time and attention from the in-

50

Department of Soil Investigations. 5r

vestigator, and as students are a transient class, new men must be
taken on and trained at inconveniently short periods. The proper
numerical balance between the permanent staff and the student corps
is yet to be determined.

Investigation Work.

The investigations of the department are conducted in (i) the ex-
periment field on the University Farm, (2) in a small glass-house, and
(3) in the laboratory. Experiments will soon be begun in the soil
tanks which will shortly be completed on the experiment field.

It is intended to limit the number of distinct lines of investigations
to a small number. This will permit of a better development of any
one subject, which must always be subdivided into a considerable
number of separate investigations, and the more of these that can
be conducted at one time the sooner definite conclusions can be
reached. The natural limit to a concentration of effort, in this way,
arises from the slowness with which results come from experimenta-
tion that involves the growth of crops. As one step leads to another
in experimentation, it is necessary to finish certain sub-investigations
before beginning others ; hence, in spite of the desirability for con-
centration, the time of the staff can be more economically spent on
three or four lines of work than on one.

The main lines of investigations, together with the subdivisions now
being conducted, are as follows :

(i) Effect of moisture and temperature on the availability and utili-
zation of plant nutrients in the soil, and the relation of this to crop
production. Including

(3.) Relation between soil-moisture content and the removal of
nutrients by the plant.

(h) Relation between soil temperature and the removal of nu-
trients by the plant.

(c) Relation between the removal of certain nutrients by the
plant and the yield and composition of the plant.

(d) Relation between the moisture content of the soil and trans-
piration by the plant, and between the transpiration and the ab-
sorption of nutrients.

(e) Eft'ect of moisture content on root growth.

(f) Effect of moisture content on bacterial flora.

(g) Conditions affecting the concentration and composition of
the soil-water solution.

52 Department of Soil Investigations.

(h) Relation between the concentration of the soil-water solu-
tion, and the absorption of nutrients by the plant.

(i) Effect of application of certain fertilizers on the density of
the soil-water solution.

(j) Influence of absorption by the soil particles on the removal
by plants of salts from the soil-water solution.

(2) Influence of certain atmospheric conditions on the absorption
of mineral nutrients by plants. Including

(a) Relation of transpiration to atmospheric humidity, tem-
perature and intensity of sunlight.

(b) Relation between transpiration, under these conditions, and
the acquisition of nutrients from the soil.

(3) A study of certain unproductive soil with special reference to
the activities of its bacterial flora.

(a) Effect of sterilization with steam, and with volatile anti-
septics on the soil in question, as well as upon others.

(a) Effect on crop production.

(b) Effect on physiological activities of ammonifying and nitri-
fying bacteria.

(c) Effect on the relative number and activity of aerobic and
anaerobic forms.

(d) Inoculation of sterilized and unsterilized good soil with in-
fusions of sterilized and unsterilized poor soil.

(e) Inoculation of sterilized poor soil, and of good soil, with cul-
tures of bacteria peculiar to or occurring in large numbers in the
poor soil.

(b) Effect of aeration on the bacterial processes in these soils,
the immediate effect of sterilization being to make the poor soil
more productive than the good.

(a) An enumeration of the aerobic and anaerobic forms in the
aerated and unaerated soils.

(b) Inoculation with cultures of the predominating forms of
bacteria from the unaerated soils.

(c) Determination of the oxygen absorptive powers of the soils^
and production of carbon dioxid.

(4) The character and concentration of the aqueous extract of a
soil under different methods of treatment.

(a) Extractions are being made of the soils on the various plats
occupied by the experiments in which timothy hay is being grown
under different methods of fertilization and in a rotation including
corn, oats and wheat. Determinations of nitrates are being made

Department of Soil Investigations. 53

in these soils to show the effect of (i) nitrate fertilizers, (2) fer-
tilizers not containing- nitrogen, (3) farm manure, (4) lime, on the
soil extract when each of the crops mentioned is growing on the
soil. A space of twenty-five feet at the end of each plat is kept free
from any vegetation in order to ascertain the effect on the soil when
no crop is present to absorb nitrates.

(b) Similar determinations are being made on corn land having
plats treated as follows: (i) cultivated, (2) mulched, (3) unculti-
vated but weeds removed by scraping, (4) weeds allowed to grow,
(5) fertilized.

(c) The effect of complete and partial sterilization as described
under (i) and (2) on the soil extract, is being determined.

(d) The production of plants and roots grown in the extracts of
the soils treated as already described.

Tanks for soil investigation. — These tanks are now nearly completed.
They are intended to furnish receptacles for bodies of soil of sufificient
size to produce plants in a normal manner under approximately field
conditions, and yet afford opportunity for measuring a large number of
the factors affecting plant-growth. The construction is of concrete,
but the tanks will be lined.

Each tank is four feet two inches square with a maximum vertical
depth of four feet six inches and a minimum, depth of four feet. There
are twenty-four tanks placed in two rows of twelve tanks each. Between
the rows of tanks is a tunnel the bottom of which is ten feet below the
top of the tanks. The tunnel is six feet wide. From the lowest point
in each tank is an outlet tube two inches in diameter and tin lined. It is
made large enough to permit of easy cleaning and has no bends in it.
A piston runs through the tube to within four inches of the upper end.
Between the perforated head of the piston and the soil, glass wool is to
be inserted. The piston can be withdrawn if it is desired to clean the
tube. Drainage water from each tank will be caught in a receptacle in
the tunnel. The lining in the tanks will prevent any soluble material in
the concrete from appearing in the drainage water. A constant water-
table at any desired depth may be maintained by raising the rubber tube
leading* from the outlet tube to a corresponding point below the surface
of the soil in the tank.

The tanks as described will each contain between three and four tons
of soil, and the surface will constitute .0004 of an acre. They are built
with special reference to durability so that it will be possible to plan for
experiments to extend over a long period. The quantity of soil contained
is not too large to allow of accuracy in sampling and yet is sufficiently

54 Department of Soil Investigations.

large closely to resemble field conditions, which is not true of the quantity
contained in pots. No covering is to be placed over the tanks, but in
every way natural conditions are to be permitted. The top soil and
subsoil will be placed in their relative positions. It is expected that the
rainfall will be sufficient to meet the needs of the crops, but if the
plants suffer during- periods of drought they can be watered arti-
ficially.

Any desired type of soil may be used, which is not possible with
ordinary field experiments. It is also possible to make a comparison of
different soil types under any desired condition, which may be very
serviceable in ascertaining the eff"ect of those properties differentiating
these types upon certain factors in soil productiveness.

The chief feature of the plan is that of keeping accurate records of
the factors affecting plant-growth without producing artificial conditions.

The tube leading from the bottom of the tank is designed to carry off
the drainage water into a receptacle which will permit the quantity to
be measured and its constituents to be determined. This will permit of
an estimation of the amount of moisture used by the crop, and will make
it possible to trace more closely the disposition of plant-food.

The accompanying diagram shows the plan and cross-section of
these tanks.

There are certain experiments involving fundamental problems in soil
productiveness that can be conducted only where it is possible to control
and measure the conditions affecting plant growth, and maintain the
experiments through a long period of years, as is the case with these
soil tanks. Some of these problems are as follows :

Effect of the continuous use of large amounts of mineral fetilizers on
the physical and chemical properties of the soil and on the bacterial
flora and bacterial activity.

The conditions under which lime is lost in the drainage water.

Changes that occur in a series of years when soils gradually deteriorate
or improve.

Extent to which soils under field conditions are renewed by accession
of lower soil to the plowed part through the wearing away of the top
soil.

Effect of certain crops on the permeability and certain other physical
properties of the soil, and on the loss of plant nutrients.

The loss of potassium and other substances occasioned by manuring
with lime.

Loss of plant nutrients caused by clean cultivation.

Department of Soil Investigations.

55

f^u rods

^"^fylf'-^^Cy^— OtT^^/iP^c/^ _ S's^^u^erti/e

Ta/^ks For

So/ L //V V£S r/CA TfON

Cornell (jNiVERSiry

56 Department of Soil Investigations,

Recommendations.

It is very desirable that the experiment field should be enclosed by a
tight fence. At present, three sides of the field are not protected, and
the fence between this field and the pasture on the north is a poor one.
Last summer the steers in the pasture broke into the experiment field
and seriously injured the experiments. Experiments conducted under
such conditions can never furnish results that are trustworthy, and an
entire year's work is likely to be lost at any time.

Wagon scales at the experiment field would save a great deal of haul-
ing and save much expense thereby. Everything weighed in a wagon
must now be hauled to the north barn, nearly a mile away. Wagon
scales would pay for themselves in a short time. The writer hopes
that it may be possible to partition off a small part of the soils re-
search laboratory for that part of the bacteriological work that re-
quires the absence of dust. A room about eight feet square, similar
to the one in the dairy laboratory would suffice. The chemical and
other work in the laboratory makes certain of the bacteriological
work very unsatisfactory at present.

T. L. LYON.
Professor of Soil Im'cstigations.

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE.

The past year has been marked by important material advancement.
The new offices, class-rooms and laboratories occupying the second floor
of the main building have been equipped with furniture and apparatus.
The increased facilities have greatly augmented the efficiency of our
service. A beginning on much-needed greenhouse equipment was made
by the passage of an appropriation for the erection of glasshouses. The
floricultural interests of the state are enormous. Thus far they have not
received adequate consideration at our hands. The new houses, although
insufficient for our needs, will when completed enable us to take up
pressing problems in the culture of forcing crops and co-operate with
commercial florists in an effective way.

Another important addition to the material equipment of the depart-
ment is the securing of fifty acres of land to be used for the growing of
pomological products. This will serve as a field laboratory for instruc-
tion and an area for experimenting. The land is being prepared for tree
occupancy, and plans are being made for planting and experimental work.

Olericulture and Floriculture.

The truck farm survey of Long Island was prosecuted for about a
month this summer, having been begiui a year ago. This, so far as
known, is the first systematic survey of vegetable-growing to be under-
taken by any experiment station, and the data now accumulating promise
to be of great interest and value to the men engaged in this industry.
Long Island is, perhaps, the most favored region in the State for trucking,
for in addition to its proximity to the best of markets it has a longer
growing season and milder winter than any other region, and a light,
sandy soil that responds immediately to fertilizers, can be worked wet
or dry, and is very early. The leading truckers for the most part are
very progressive men, and handle all departments of the business with
skill ; but many of the rank and file are still backward, and might be
greatly benefited by such a report as is contemplated.

Thousands of acres in the interior of the island, now producing nothing
but scrubby growths of pine, oak and chestnut, are well adapted to vege-
tables, as has been shown clearly by the experimental farms of the Long
Island railroad at Wading river and Medford; and it is hoped to show
in the report that great opportunities here await the farmer of small
means.

The information gathered concerns soils, crops, methods, labor, har-
vesting, marketing, and the like. Only one man has worked on the survey

57

58 Department of Horticulture.

so far, and he only for a few weeks, so much remains to be done ; but
with a small corps of assistants, such as is hoped will be available another
season, at least enough territory will be covered to warrant issuing' a
printed report.

Several meetings were addressed during the past year, among them
Grange meetings at North LeRoy and Batavia, an Institute at Jefferson,
and a Farmers' Club at Versailles.

A plot of about one and one-half acres of sandy land just south of the
astronomical observatory has been set aside for vegetable-growing, and
on this some fifty varieties of vegetables were tested this season, and
experiments begun with asparagus. On this ground, also, the practical
work in olericulture is given to the students.

Plans for the new greenhouses were prepared during the summer and
submitted to the State Architect. With the increased facilities these
houses will afford for floriculture and vegetable forcing it is proposed to
push the development of these subjects rapidly.

L. B. JUDSON,
Olericulture and Floriculture.

Pomology.
Investigation.

Black-rot of the grape. — An eight-acre plat was chosen in the vineyard
of Mr. Cushman at Romulus. The plat was sprayed with mixtures dif-
fering in composition, strength and the number of applications. The
results show that the disease may be controlled by the use of fungicides.

Peach yellozus. — An inspection of peach yellows and little peach was
conducted during the summer in the orchards of the Youngstown district,
Niagara county. The purpose of this experiment was to determine the
value of the extermination method as a means of control. The experi-
ment was a concentration of a previous year's investigation conducted in
co-operation with the United States Department of Agriculture. Two
inspections were made, the first August ist to 15th, the second September
I St to 17th.

Orchard management. — An orchard-management experiment was in-
stituted in the orchard of Mr. Judson Knapp at Syracuse. The orchard
is nineteen years old and does not bear. The purpose of the experiment
was to determine the cause of the barrenness. It is being pursued in
co-operation with the Department of F.nlomology.

Extension ivork.

Orchard surveys. — The county of Orange was finished last June.
Ontario county was surveyed during June, July and August. The field
work was done by A. W. McKay, assisted by W. A. Salisbury. Over
eight hundred different orchards were surveyed. Monroe county was
surveyed during June, July and August. The field work was done by

Department of Horticulture. 59

Messrs, Burritt, Alderman and Anderson. About nine hundred orchards
were surveyed.

During the college year and the summer vacation, several addresses
were given at fruit meetings in various parts of the State.

C. S. WILSON,

Pomology.

Publications and Other Investigations.

Peonies. — The studies commenced on the peony in co-operation with
the American Peony Society four years ago have been continued. A check
list containing the names and citations of some two thousand references
was published as a preliminary step, and this has been followed by a
bulletin describing the leading varieties. This work has been done under
the writer's direction, first by Mr. J. E. Coit and later by Mr. L. D.
Batchelor.

Beans. — A varietal and monographic study of beans has been in
progress in the Department of Horticulture for several years. An im-
portant step in the work is m.arked by the preparation for publication, by
Mr. C. D. Jarvis, of a monograph which classifies and describes practically
all varieties of cultivated garden beans.

Black-rot of the grape. — A bulletin on this important question, prepared
by Professor Wilson and Mr. Reddick and giving the results of experi-
ments of black-rot, was published.

The department also assisted in the preparation of a bulletin giving
general direction for the prevention of plant diseases and injurious insects.

Surveys of New York Orchards.

It seems opportune at this time to present something in the nature of a
historical statement regarding the development of the Cornell orchard
survey movement. It is also proper to explain that the orchard survey
as at present conducted combines the features of a census and those of a
biological study. In this it differs radically from anything of the kind
previously attempted. It is also proper to say that the present orchard
examination was foreshadowed by the series of extension bulletins on
orcharding in Western New York prepared by Dean L. H. Bailey, when
professor of horticulture, between 1894 and 1896. The first serious and
comprehensive effort, however, to make a critical census and examination
of conditions of apple-orcharding occurred in 1903 when the writer began
the survey of Wayne county. The field work was done by Dr. G. F.
Warren, then a graduate student in the Department of Plorticulture. The
work in the near-by county of Orleans was taken up the following year
(1904) by the department, when Mr. Warren was assisted by Mr. C. A.
Bues. The next year, at the earnest solicitation of the Niagara county
fruit-growers, a similar examination of this county was begun. In this

6o Department of Horticulture.

instance, the scope of the inquiry was widened to include the peach. The
work was continued by various assistants under the direction of the
writer during the summers of 1905 and 1906, and was finally completed
by Mr. M. B. Cummings, assistant in the Department of Horticulture, in
1907. During the same year the energies of the department in this survey
work were divided between the east and the west. Two investigators
comm.enced work on the apple, pear and peach in Orange county.

In the last fiscal year large progress has been made. A special fund
was provided and the work prosecuted vigorously under the general direc-
tion of Professor Wilson. At the present time there have been completed
surveys of six counties, viz., Wayne, Orleans, Niagara, Monroe, Ontario
and Orange.

It has been thought well to offer this statement regarding the initiation
of an exceedingly important line of horticultural extension effort in order
that the various persons instrumental in originating and furthering it may
receive due credit in future records.

Meetings.

The annual meeting of the American Peony Society was held at the
College of Agriculture in June. This gathering brought together the
leading peony specialists of the United States and Canada. The New
York State Fruit Growers' Association held its summer meeting at the
College of Agriculture in August, which was attended by many prominent
orchardists in the State.

The writer attended and addressed during the first half year the two
State pomological organizations of New York, several smaller fruit asso-
ciations in addition to various granges and civic improvement societies.
During the second semester he was absent on leave and spent the period
in Europe where, as far as possible, a somewhat careful examination of
the agricultural and horticultural schools of Germany and Italy was made.
He has pleasure in acknowledging the zealous and conscientious manner
in wliich the affairs of the department were administered by Professors
Ju(l->on and Wilson during his absence.

Further Equipment Needed.
The department is urgently in need of a storage-house for fruit 'and
vegetables. At present, there is no safe place where fruit or vegetables
can be stored for experiment or class studies. What is needed is a storage-
house combining ordinary cellar storage and regulated cold-storage or
refrigeration. A storage-house would enable us to conduct investigations
of direct value to the grower and handler of fruit. From the standpoint
of la])oratory instruction in pomology and olericulture, it is equally
essential.

JOHN CRAIG,
Professor of Horticulture.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.

At the beginning of the year, nearly the entire support of the depart-
ment was assumed by the College of Agriculture. Under the present
arrangement, a part of the salary of the Professor of Entomology is paid
by Cornell University, and all other expenses of the department by the
New York State College of Agriculture. The writer therefore, includes
in this communication a report on all of the work of the department.

Teaching Work.
All of the courses announced in the Program of Courses of Instruction
have been given, and have been well attended. The sum of the numbers
of students attending these courses during the past year is 378. Some
students attended more than one course. The numbers of different indi-
viduals were as follows :

Undergraduates 203

Graduates 16

Experiment and Research Work.

Several members of the staff' of the department are engaged on the
I)reparation of text-books for the use of students and general readers.
These include a manual of the spiders of the United States, a book
on insects injurious to fruits, a work consisting of tables for the iden-
tification of the insects of the Northeastern United States, a text-book
on Insect Morphology, and a text-book of General Biology; and there
was published during the year by Assistant Bradley a monograph of
the Evaniidae.

Professor Needham is devoting nearly his entire time to research,
a large part of which is concerned with insects and Crustacea that
serve as the food of fishes ; this research is supported by private funds,
but is conducted at the field station of the college in the Renwick
marsh near Ithaca.

Professor Slingerland is devoting considerable time to studies of
injurious insects, and Mr. Crosby is devoting his entire time to re-
search in this field. During the last year, the following subjects were
investigated :

(a) A study of the habits and life-history of the timothy joint-worm
and other Isosomas infesting grains and grasses, with a view to devising
a method to prevent the injury caused by these insects.

(b) A study of the habits and life-history of the apple-seed chalcis,
grape-seed chalcis, and four other seed infecting chalcid-flies.

61

62 Department of Entomology.

(c) A study of the life-history and habits of certain minor pests of
the arbor vitae and the hemlock.

(d) A study of a new leaf-miner of the plum, the leaf-miner of the
dewberry, and the red bug of the apple.

Extension Work.

The extension work has consisted of an extensive correspondence
regarding injurious insects, a few co-operative experiments with
farmers in spraying, and attendance at fairs with exhibits of injurious
insects. J. H. COMSTOCK,

Professor of Entomology.

DEPARTMENT OF DAIRY INDUSTRY.

The department of Dairy Industry has now completed its first full
year in the new building provided by the State. During the greater
part of last year, when the dairy work was done in the new building,
the work was performed at great disadvantage, owing to the fact that
the building was not completed and that workmen were constantly
present in the building. During the yast year, however, the building
has been free from such annoyance, and the work of the year was
begun with the building and equipment in good condition for prose-
cuting the work of the department. In the main, the building has
proved to be very satisfactory for the work for which it was intended.
There are. however, some features which have been a constant source
of annoyance, as a' result of unsatisfactory construction in certain parts
of the building.

It was generally supposed that when the department moved into
its present quarters, in the new Dairy Building, there would be an
abundance of room for all the desired work of the department, with
plenty of opportunity for expansion. During the past year the build-
ing has accommodated the students taking dairy work very com-
fortably, but the number of students taking work in this department
has increased so rapidly that it became evident during the year that
if anything like the present rate of increase continues, the time is
not far distant when the present building will not furnish satisfactory
facilities for giving the instruction work in Dairy Industry. In fact,
the building was taxed nearly to its full capacity during the period
that the Winter-course men were here.

The work of the department may be discussed more in detail under
the following heads:

Teaching.

(a) Regular courses. — Four new courses of instruction were added in
Dairy Industry this year, as follows :

Course 47. Dairy Mechanics.

Course 48. Fancy Cheese-making.

Course 49. Advanced Dairy Bacteriology.

Course 50. Advanced Testing.

The total number of regular students has been much larger during
the past year than in any previous year. This probably is due in
part to the increased facilities for doing the work, together with the

63

64

Department of Dairy Industry,

increased number of courses offered, — eleven courses being offered
this year as compared with seven for 1906-07, and four for 1905-06.
The following table is of interest as showing the growth of the teaching

work in the past four years :

1904-05 1905-06

Course 40. Alilk, Composition and Tests

Course 41. Creamery [Methods 25 53

Course 42. Cheese-making 25 17

Course 43. Market Milk and Milk Inspection. 15 29

Course 44. Laboratory Bacteriology 19 9

Course 45. Seminar

Course 46. Investigations

Course 47. Dairy Mechanics

Course 48. Fancy Cheese-making

Course 49. Dairy Bacteriology

Course 50. Advanced Testing Laboratory

Course 5

1906-07

1907-08

62

104

3-'

70

13

17

29

48

16

23

21

3^

10

9

....

36

. . . .

9

....

14

84 108 183 368

(b) Winter-courses. — The number of men in the winter dairy course
was practically the same as for the previous year, ninety-five men
being enrolled. This class showed a higher average ability than was
shown by some previous classes. The men exhibited a marked in-
terest in their work, and made a good record both as to work and to
attendance. A few students were taken sick with scarlet ' fever, a
number also had measles, and were therefore obliged to give up the
work. Aside from these but few men left the course before the close.
All of the men who made good records received satisfactory positions
soon after the close of the course ; in fact, the call for competent men
for positions in factories and milk stations was larger than the number,
of men qualified for the work. There seems to be a growing belief
among commercial men that men having some special training in the
handling of milk and its products are more satisfactory than those
who have not had such training.

In addition to the ninety-five men taking the regular winter dairy
course, forty-eight men took the work in farm dairying, making a total
of one hundred and forty-three men who received instruction in dairjf
work during the winter course.

Research Work.

The ray)']d growth in the number of students taking work in this
department hns fully kept pace with the increase in the teaching staff.

Department of Dairy Industry. 65

so that the time of the members of the staff has been very largely
taken up with the teaching work. In addition to the teachmg work,
however, experimental work has been conducted during the year in
the following lines:

(a) Improvement of the Ithaca milk supply. The purpose of this
work is to aid the farmers in producing milk of better quality more
economically, and at the same time to aid the Ithaca health officer
in securing a wholesome milk supply for the city. A thorough study
has been made of the quality of the milk delivered in the city; also
careful inspection of the farms where the milk is produced. This
work has met with the approval and co-operation of the milk-producers
as well as the city authorities, and has resulted in a marked improve-
ment in the quality of the milk coming into Ithaca.

(b) During the winter months experimental work was undertaken
in the manufacture of Camembert cheese. Some very satisfactory
cheese was produced, but with the approach of warm weather it was
necessary to give up this work, owing to lack of cool curing-rooms.

(c) Some experimental work in the manufacture of cheddar cheese
has been done, especially in connection with the manufacture of
soaked-curd cheese. Some very interesting results have been ob-
tained, which have been used by the State Department of Agriculture
as a basis for regulating the sale of this type of cheese.

(d) During the year the dairy department has been conducting cow
testing work with something over 200 individual cows in 22 different
herds. This work is being conducted in connection with our creamery
at Sage. The department's representative visits each herd once a
month, taking records of the feed consumed and the yield of each in-
dividual cow. This work shows the farmer which are his profitable
and which are his unprofitable cows, how to keep a record of his in-
dividual animals, and it will enable him to produce more milk.

(e) A careful scientific study is being made of the fermented milk
drinks now^ placed on the market in this country. The use of this
milk is at present attracting much attention among physicians, and
it is thought that a thorough study of these materials, wdth methods
for making the same, will be of considerable practical value.

(f) Considerable work has been done on methods for market milk
inspection work. There is at present no uniformity in the methods
used by the milk inspectors in the various cities. It is thought that
much better methods can be worked out than are in use at present.
One report on this work has already been sent to the committee of the
American Public Health Association appointed to consider this
question.

66 Department, of Dairy Industry.

Extension Work.

During the year extension work has been conducted by the depart-
ment in the following lines :

(a) Correspondence. — Over 5,000 letters were received and an-
swered by this department during the year. The great majority of
these were from residents of New York State seeking information in
regard to some phase of dairy work. It is believed that much good
can be done to the dairy interests of our State by means of carefully
conducted correspondence.

(b) The work of the winter-courses as outlined above.

(c) Work at Farmers' Institutes and Grange meetings. It is dif-
ficult for the members of the teaching force to be absent from Ithaca
for any length of time during the University year. During the past
year, however, members of the staff have attended approximately
twenty different meetings, giving addresses upon various phases of
dairy work. The importance of this line of work is appreciated, but
with the present size of the staff and the large classes that have to be
cared for, it is practicall}^ impossible materially to increase the amount
of this work done. It is hoped that the time may soon come when
the teaching force will be sufficiently increased so that some members
will be able to spend more time in this work.

(d) The work of cow-testing mentioned above, the inspection of
former winter-course students, and the securing of positions for the
same may properly be included under extension work.

Needs of the Department.

One of the most urgent needs of the department is a good refrigera-
tion plant. The question of milk supply for the instruction work has
always been a serious one. Since the adoption of the present practice
of handling the milk supply the year round in order to secure a sat-
isfactory supply for work during the University year, it is necessary
for us to handle large amounts of milk, butter and cheese during the
hot summer months, which means the use of large quantities of ice.
The icehouses at present available for the use of the department are
not large enough to house the ice needed for the work of the
department. It will readily be seen that the handling of this amount
of product in a satisfactory manner requires large quantities of ice,
and more has been needed during the past summer than in previous
years, because cheese has been made continuously during the summer
this year for the first time. In order to, get the best returns for our
products it is desirable to make cheese the year round in order to
supply a regular trade.

Department of Dairy Industry. dj

During the past season it has cost the department fully $800 for ice.
In addition to this cost it has been impossible to conduct certain lines
of experimental work because of the lack of proper refrigeration. The
installation of a refrigerating system would do away with the expen-
diture of this sum of money for ice, and it would also enable us to
accomplish the manufacturing and experimental work much more
satisfactorily.

One of the greatest needs in dairy work in New York State at the
present time is a better knowledge on the part of milk-producers of
the methods of producing cleaner milk. The cities drawing their milk
supply from New York State are now requiring a much higher grade
of milk than formerly. The margin of profit to the producer is very
small. He therefore justly maintains that he cannot increase the cost
of production in order to comply with the new requirements. The
dairy department could do no greater good to the m.ilk-producers of
the State than to show them how they can improve the sanitary con-
ditions of their stables and methods of handling milk without ma-
terially increasing the cost of production. One of the greatest addi-
tions to the equipment of the dairy department would be a small herd
where instruction in this phase of dairy work can be given.

Many creameries and cheese factories throughout the State are
losing every year thousands of dollars because of inaccurate methods
of testing. If the dairy department had a man who could spend a
considerable part of his time in the field, giving instruction in this
line of work, it would place the department in closer touch with the
manufacturing interests of the State, and would result in bringing
larger numbevs of students to the University. The same thing is true
in the matter of conducting cow-testing work. Other states have gone
far ahead of us in this, and it is hoped that we will be able soon to have
sufficient help to do a greater amount of this work.

The Dairy Department should have equipment for making milk-sugar
and casein. The saving of all by-products is a matter which receives the
closest attention by the average manufacturing concern. This is not true
in most of the butter and cheese factories in this State. Large sums of
money are being lost to the dairymen every year because the by-products
of the factories are not properly utilized. We should be able to instruct
our students how to make the best use of the factory by-products. A
room was planned for this work when the dairy building was constructed,
but the department needs funds for installing the necessary machinery.
The department is not doing its full duty to the dairy interests of the
State until this work is taken up, and it is hoped that it may be possible
to do this in the near future.

68 Department of Dairy Industry,

Changes ix the Staff.

Beginning with the year, Mr. Allan Ferguson, a graduate of Wesleyan
University, having had two years' practical experience in the manufacture
of Camembert cheese, was secured as assistant in this department to take
up the work of teaching and manufacturing this kind of fancy cheese,
together with the investigation work in connection with the city milk
supply.

Early in April, Governor Hughes appointed Professor R. A. Pearson
Commissioner of Agriculture of New York State, and on April 20th he
resigned his position as head of the Department of Dairy Industry in
order to take up his new duties in Albany. Professor Pearson's departure
IS a great loss to the department. He left the work of the department,
however, very thoroughly organized, as a result of which it has been
possible to continue the work without very serious interruption. The
plans which he had outlined are being carried out as nearly as possible
as he had planned them. The success of the work in the future will be
very largely the result of the efficient organization and the plans which
he outlined while still head of the department.

Just prior to Professor Pearson's appointment, Albert R. Mann was
appointed assistant professor, and began his duties in the Dairy Depart-
ment April 14th. Professor Mann took charge of much of the business
and office work which Professor Pearson had been doing. A little later
Professor Mann was appointed by Commissioner Pearson as his private
secretary, and left the Dairy Department June 23d, to take up his new
work in Albany.

because of ill health, Mr. W. W. Hall, who for so many years has had
charge of the instruction in cheese work during the winter-course, was
unable to do the work this year. Mr. C. A. Publow, formerly cheese
instructor in Canada, was secured to do this work. At the close of the
winter term Mr. Publow was appointed assistant professor and began his
duties in this capacity March ist.

Mr. E. S. Guthrie, for three years instructor in butter-making in the
Ohio State University, has been appointed in a similar position here, and
will begin his work at the opening of the new fiscal year. Mr. Guthrie
has made an excellent record in Ohio, and I believe the Dairy Department
is fortunate in securing him.

The department acknowledges the generous support and many helpful
suggestions given by the director.

W. A. STOCKING, JR.,
Assistant Professor and Acting Head of
Department of Dairy Industry.

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.

Ithaca, N. Y., October 20, 1908.

Teaching Work.

The amount of instruction given in the various courses is shown in the

tabular statement below :

1907-1908.

First Second

Term. Term.

Course 31 82 65

Course 32 . . 55

Course 33 • • -

Course 34 40

Course 35 . . 9

Course 36 1 1

Course 37 • • 7

Course 38 33

Winter course, Feeds and Feeding 197

Winter course. Breeds and Breeding 68

Research Work.

The research work has been comprised mainly of feeding experiments.
First, an experiment to determine the usefulness of various artificial foods
in raising calves without milk. Second, the use of roots instead of con-
centrated foods in the production of milk. Third, the utilization of
skimmed milk in feeding pigs. Fourth, the possibilities of profitable beef-
production in New York State. Fifth, the economy of production of
winter lambs. Sixth, the department has recently planned a co-operative
experiment with feeders of lambs in Genesee county to determine, if
possible, the cause of loss of lambs by apoplexy, which is common in that
vicinity.

Extension Work.

The larger part of the extension work in this department is comprised
in supervising the records of the production of pure-bred cows belonging

69

70 Department of Animal Husbandry

to the various breeds. During the past year, the records of 1,265 Holstein
cows were supervised, 1,119 for periods of seven days each, and the
remainder for various longer periods up to sixty days. In addition,
regular monthly inspections of 11 Guernsey, 5 Jersey and i Ayrshire herds
have been made.

Further, various members of the department have attended and spoken
at twelve or fifteen institutes, granges and other farmers' meetings.

Staff and Equipment.

The staiT was strengthened during the past year by the appointment
of Elmer S. Savage as instructor in Animal Husbandry.

The equipment of the department was materially increased by the pur-
chase of horses from a sum set aside from the special appropriation by
the Legislature for additions to the equipment. This comprises a team
of pure-bred Percheron fillies, two years old ; a team of cross-bred
Hackney-Standard mares for driving purposes ; a team of grade Belgian
geldings, representing the heavy draft type, and four teams of work
horses of the better grade and of a medium draft type. This makes a
reasonably full equipment of horses and teams, which the department
expects to strengthen by breeding such of the mares as are available for
the purpose from this time on.

The greatest need of the Department of Animal Husbandry at the
present time is additional buildings for the housing of the live-stock and
for beginning w^ork in dressing and curing of meats on the farm.

H. H. WING,
Professor of Animal Husbandry.

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY.

During the year the Department of Poultry Husbandry has made con-
sistent growth in each division of its work. The activities of the depart-
ment divide as follows : First, administration ; second, instruction ; third,
investigation; fourth, correspondence; and fifth, enterprises in co-opera-
tion with the Extension Department.

Administration.

Many important improvements have been made which have added
materially to the efficiency and appearance of the poultry plant. Five
houses have been removed and remodeled and the land south of the new
laying-house has been graded and seeded. ' As a result, there is now a
modern pipe-system brooder-house, forty-five feet long, for rearing winter
chickens; a fattening-house thirty feet long; a killing-room, storage-room
and seven colony-houses, all of which were greatly needed. With the
$2,000 appropriated by the State, a modern laying-house has been built
276 feet long, containing twenty-three pens, admirably adapted to pur-
poses of instruction. A hot-water heating system and electric lights have
been placed in the main building. A room has been properly equipped
with gasoline engine, bone-cutters, feed-cutters, and the like for the teach-
ing of poultry mechanics. In the attic of the Dairy Building a com-
modious, well-equipped laboratory has been provided. All the buildings
of the Plant have been painted to match the color scheme of the College
of Agriculture, and cinder paths have been constructed and flower beds
laid out, which add greatly to the attractiveness of the Plant.

Each year students have built a laying-house and brooder-houses as
part of their instruction, until now we have a capacity for wintering
1,500 head of poultry and for rearing about four thousand chickens
annually.

Through the kindness of the Farm Department and the Department of
Grounds, we have been enabled this year to rear chickens under somewhat
normal conditions, which, heretofore, it has been impossible to do. As a
result, more and better chickens have been grown, with less mortality and
at a less expense than heretofore. This has resulted in a large increase in
the income from the sales of poultry and poultry products.

72 Department of Poultry Husbandry

The inventory of the Poultr}' Department, on July ist, showed values
as follows:

Equipments for teaching and investigating $3^375 05

Stock 2,696 85

Feed 193 96

Buildings ^-^7^ 50

Total 812,142 36

The amount of stock on hand, October i, 1908:

Young stock 3!298 head

Mature 829 "

Total 4,127 head

Instruction.

The number of students taking courses in Poultry Husbandry in 1907-8
was:

(a) Regulars, 32;

(b) One or two-year specials, 56;

(c) Winter Poultry-Course, 46;

(d) Electing Poultry Husbandry from other Winter Courses, 33.
Total students taking some form of instruction in Poultry Husbandr}-,

167.

Table Showing the Number of " University Hours " Taught Dur-
ing THE Past Frhe Years, to Students of Various Grades :

1903-4 1904-5 1905-6 1906-7 1907-8
Regulars and specials 74

Winter Poultry Course

Winter Course Elective 54

339

258

474

527

225

540

690

690

60

80

64

66

Total 128 624 778 1,228 1,283

The courses taught during 1907-8 have been increased as follows for
1908-9:

Course 38 (laboral(jry practice during afternoons) is required of all
students who take course 37 (lecture course). This makes a four-hour
course throughout the year without being discontinued, as formerly, dur-

Department of Poultry Husbandry 73

ing the twelve weeks' Winter Poultry Course. This change was made
possible by the completion of the poultry laboratory in the Dairy building
and the employment of additional help.

A course in fattening poultry (39b) and a course in brooding (40b)
have been added. These courses have long been needed but could not
be given until this year. They are now given because we have the new
fattening-house and pipe-system brooder-house, recently constructed by
moving and remodeling several of the original laying houses and the em-
ployment of additional help.

Students from winter courses other than the poultry course, who elect
Poultry Husbandry, will be given, this year for the first time, demon-
strations in connection with the lectures. This is made possible by the
increased laboratory facilities and help, as indicated above.

Investigations.

During the year the investigational work has been greatly strengthened
by being segregated from the instructional work. This was accomplished
by setting apart for the investigational division, a laboratory, feed-room,
incubator-room, and about one-half of the pens, each equipped for con-
ducting the experiments entirely apart from the instruction.

Professor C. A. Rogers has given practically all of his time and Mr.
A. E. Boicourt has given all of his attention to the eighteen investigational
projects which have been conducted during the year, and which will fur-
nish material for four bulletins to be prepared soon.

This branch of the work has been made more efficient by increasing the
facilities for keeping records and working up a large amount of data now
available for publication. Bulletin No. 258 on the " ]\Iolting of Fowls "
is now in press, and bulletin No. 259 on " The Use of Grit " is nearly
ready for the printer.

Correspondence.

The correspondence has increased rapidly each year. The total number
of letters written between October i, 1907 and October i, 1908, was
8,092. This does not include form letters and cards sent out in response
to inquiries for poultry literature.

Enterprises in Co-operation with the Extension Department.

(a) During the year, seven lessons on poultry have been prepared for
the Rural School Leaflets. Several others are in preparation.

(b) Twenty-eight persons have undertaken various types of co-oper-
ative experiments with poultry.

(c) Five educational exhibits have been made at the State and county
fairs.

74 Department of Poultry Husbandry

(d) The number of speaking engagements which have been filled by

members of the instructing staff of the Poultry Department, 1907-8, is as

follows :

Number of appointments made by members of the Poultry Depart-
ment for outside speaking 35

Number of speaking engagements in co-operation with N. Y. State
Farmers' Institutes 6

Number of speaking engagements in co-operation with C. U. Exten-
sion Department 17

Number of speaking engagements in exchange for services of non-
resident lecturers from other States 3

Number of speaking engagements in other States 4

Recommendations.

The increasmg demand on the part of students for instruction, and
poultrymen and farmers of the State for lectures, personal visits, and
information through bulletins, reading-course lessons, rural school
leaflets, and correspondence, demands an increase in the amount of
land, buildings, equipments and help.

(a) More land is imperatively needed. — The Department of Poultry
Husbandry, if it is to practice what it teaches, if it is to make a suc-
cess of the department, as indicated by healthy stock and large per-
centage of fertile eggs hatched and chickens reared, and if it is to do
this with an economical expenditure for food and labor, should have
forty to fifty acres of land in addition to the four or five acres, ap-
proximately, which it has now. The modern poultry enterprise is a
farm, not a plant. The latter almost invariably results in conges-
tion, disease and disaster.

It is urged that the present plant be retained as long as possible
in order that instruction may be given in close proximity to the main
group of College buildings. A large part of the effective teaching in
Poultry liusbandry must be by practice in handling fowls and gen-
eral plant management. This cannot be done under existing con-
ditions of student living, with the poultry farm located on other land,
presumably now available for such purposes. The land to be de-
voted to the poultry farm would be used for all investigational work
and for the rearing and handling of all stock during the summer
season.

It is necessary that the land be provided in order to rear the stock
successfully. The department is dependent on the indulgence of the
Farm .Department and the Department of Grounds for use of land
for rearing chickens during the summer months, which, although a
great improvement over conditions formerly existing, at best is only

Department of Poultry Husbandry 75

temporary and unsatisfactory, both to the Poultry Department and
to the departments that permit the use of their land.

(b) More buildings should be provided. — There is urgent need for a
main administration building for the Department of Poultry Hus-
bandry. The department is now dependent on the Department of
Dairy Industry for lecture-room, laboratory, office and reading-room.
The present poultry building is wholly inadequate to meet the de-
mands of the students who are taking instruction. The incubator-
cellar is taxed beyond its capacity. The feed-room is too small and
there are not pens enough to accommodate all of the students who
will seek instruction in Poultry Husbandry the present winter.

The department will be obliged, this winter, to limit the number
of students in the Winter Poultry Course to fifty. It is more than
likely that it will be necessary to turn away students in this State
because of lack of facilities, nowithstanding the fact that we have
inserted the clause that no students from outside of the State shall
be given a place in the class if, by so doing, it shall debar a person
from this State from entering.

(c) More help is required. — In order properly to teach the students
who seek instruction there should be an assistant professor appointed,
in the near future, who shall devote his entire time to instruction.

(d) Poultry exhibits at the fairs should be extended. — The Department
of Poultry Husbandry could use funds to splendid advantage and with
great profit to the poultrymen in placing an educational exhibit at every
town and county fair in the State, where suitable accommodations could
be provided.

(e) Poultry associations are effective centers for zvork and should be
assisted.^- There are forty or more poultry clubs, societies and associations
in this State, a very large proportion of which would welcome one or
more speakers each year to attend these meetings, especially in connection
with their poultry shows, where educational exhibits should be displayed.

{i) A poultry survey would result in great good. — There should be a
poultry survey made of Tompkins county and other counties of the State
at the earliest possible date. Much valuable information can be gained by
comparison of methods as they are actually practiced by farmers and
poultrymen in this State. This type of information is wholly lacking and
decidedly needed at the present time.

James E. Rice,

Professor of Poultry Husbandry.

DEPARTMENT OF FARM MECHANICS.

Teaching Work.

The leaching work of this Department during the past year consisted
in a three-hour course entitled " Farm Mechanics, " for which 34 students
were enrolled in the first half year and 40 in the second half year. For
the coming year, this Department will offer " Farm Mechanics " in the
first half year and during the Winter-course, and " Farm Engineering " in
the second half year, the last being provided in response to the frequently
expressed desire of many of our students.

Before laying out the work of either of the above courses it was
thought best thoroughly to canvass the entire field of agricultural engineer-
ing and to decide in detail on the subjects and the amount of time wdiich
it would probably be best eventually to allot to each of the Departments
of Farm jMechanics, Rural Engineering and Rural Architecture, as
broadly outlined in the report of the Director for 1905-1906. Tentative
schedules were therefore prepared for two sets of courses, one set being
laid out to suit the requirements of the general student, and one to suit
the student who wishes to specialize in engineering work.

Courses for General Student.

University Credit Hours.

I * s

Lectures or
Laboratory. Recitations. Tot a

Shopwork 2 .... 2

Farm Mechanics i 2 3

Farm Engineering i 2 3

Total 8

Courses for Specl\llst.

Drawing — Instrumental i ... i

Shopwork : 2 .... 2

Farm machinery , 2 i 3

Farm Motors 2 i 3

Field Engineering . . . 2 i 3

Rural Architecture 2 i 3

Total 15

76

Department of Farm Mechanics JJ

At the present time, the minimum number of unrestricted elective hours
in the College of Agriculture open to a regular student is 38, the maximum
56. The complete short set of courses in engineering as outlined above
would constitute approximately 21^ of the minimum or 14^^ of the maxi-
mum number of said elective hours ; the complete long set of courses,
2f)'i of the minimum or 27^' of the maximum. As it would frequently
happcr. that a student would not be able to devote so great a proportion
of his elective hours to engineering work, these courses therefore should
be laid out so that so far as possible one would not be a prerequisite of
any other.

Drc-cving. By way of preparation for either of these sets of courses
it would be urged that the regular students so elect their work in drawing
that one of the two required hours be spent in freehand and the other in
projection or instrumental drawing. In addition to this, it will be noted
that students intending to specialize in engineering would be urged or
possibly required to take one more hour in instrumental drawing, pro-
visions for which now exists in the college curriculum.

Shopit'ork, the same for both sets of courses, would be intensely prac-
tical, dealing with such subjects as construction of building frames and
of forms for concrete work, simple forging and the tempering of steel,
the adjustment and repair of agricultural implements and wagons, paint-
ing and varnishing, and the cutting and fitting of pipe.

Farm Mechanics, the course given during the past year, would aim con-
stantly to bring out fundamental principles and to train in clear thinking
in connection with the study of a few farm implements, pumps and farm
motors. Like the shopwork, the illustrations cited in the lectures and the
exercises set for the laboratory work would be intensely practical in
nature, in order to arouse and maintain the student's keen interest in the
work.

Farm Engineering would treat of the practical solution of the problems
involved in connection with farm sanitation; surveying and mapping 'the
farm; laying out, grading and digging drainage and irrigation ditches;
laying out and building farm fences, roads and bridges ; laying out build-
ing foundations, testing the use of cement, etc., etc. No attempt would
be made to include rural architecture in this course, as the time allotted
is much too short even for the subjects first mentioned.

Courses for the Specialist. The extended courses of the second set
having double the amount of laboratory work, would require ample labora-
tory space, equipment and instructing staiT properly to handle any con-
siderable number of students.

Dairy Mechanics and Poultry Mechanics. It would seem to be advisable
ultimately to have the work in Dairy Mechanics and in Poultry Mechanics
now given by the Dairy and Poultry Departments respectively included in

yS Department of Farm Mechanics

the work of the Department of Farm ^Mechanics. Whether or not instruc-
tion in particular parts of the work should be given by a member of the
department involved would be a point to be settled by circumstances ex-
isting at the time.

Highway Construction, a matter of far-reaching importance to the
rural districts, should be provided for in a separate course designed
especially to train men for the position of road supervisor. The aid of
the National Department of Agriculture could undoubtedly be secured in
this work in the way of supplying machinery and materials for demon-
stration and exhibition purposes.

Winter-courses. In addition to the winter-courses in Farm ^Mechanics,
Dairy jMechanics and Poultry Mechanics now being offered, there should
be provided winter-courses in Farm Machinerj- and in Highway Con-
struction.

Advanced work. Opportunity should be provided for advanced work
in fa) Farm Machinery along the lines of testing and improving machines
of existing types and also of designing wholly new machines, the need
for which might be brought out from time to time as the result of or in
connection with research by other departments, (b) Farm Motors, (c)
Field Engineering on drainage and irrigation problems, highway construc-
tion and maintenance, tests of fencing, etc. (d) Rural Architecture,
along any of the numerous lines that at once suggest themselves.

Separate Courses for Specials. In all of the engineering work, the need
of separate courses for fully-prepared regular and for unprepared special
students is most pronounced.

Research Work.

No investigations of any kind were attempted during the past year.
During the coming year, however, there will be made a thorough investi-
gation of spray nozzles under all laboratory conditions which, it is hoped,
will prove of much practical value.

A special appropriation of Sioo.oo will be devoted to the purchase or
construction of a traction dynamometer of the best possible design, which
will be absolutely essential in much of the research work that may be
taken up later.

Extension Work.

As the department is but recently organized and not yet fully estab-
lished, no attempt was made during the past year to undertake any
aggressive extension work, and since the department is practically un-
known to the farmers of the State few letters of inquiry on engineering
subjects were received. Of these few, however, a number contained re-
quests for advice as to the best make of implement of some kind for the
inquirer to purchase.

Department of Farm Mechanics 79

This at once brings to our attention a phase of the Farm Mechanics'
work which will require the most delicate handling. The farmers will
expect the department, and reasonably so, to act on occasion as their
consulting engineer in matters pertaining to the selection of their
machinery. On the other hand, the greatest care must be exercised to
avoid injuring the trade of any manufacturer by carelessly condemning
his goods without just cause. Since the work is supported by the people
of the State they have a right to demand results. This forces us to the
conclusion that the only just course is to issue no statement actively
derogatory or especially commendatory of any implement or machine
unless such statement is founded on facts obtained by accurate tests con-
ducted under thoroughly fair and fully specified conditions. To this
course, the writer believes, neither the farmers nor the majority of the
implement trade can offer reasonable objection.

There are, however, many other lines in the way of general education
in engineering matters in which the work of this department may be ex-
tended to the farmers of the State and this work will be taken up at the
earliest possible moment.

Changes in the Equipment.

On its organization, this department received from the old Agronomy
Department, under whose charge the work had been previously done, a
considerable equipment of machines, notable among which are a number
of plows both walking and sulky, a threshing machine complete with
many attachments, a traction engine, and a number of historical imple-
ments. Mention should also be made of the set of copies of the Rau
plow models secured by President Andrew D. White in Germany in 1868.

During the past year, much attention was devoted to the task of bring-
ing the work and aims of the Department of Farm Mechanics to the
attention of a number of the larger manufacturers of agricultural imple-
ments and machinery throughout the country and of soliciting their aid
in the way of furnishing catalogues for distribution and machinery for
use for exhibition purposes or in connection with the laboratory exercises.
It is a pleasure to report that these letters have been met invariably with
courtesy and with a ready acquiescence to practically every request made.
Among the most important additions to the equipment may be noted three
gasoline engines, a six foot windmill on stub tower, several pumps, a
sectioned pump model, engine lubricators and other fittings for laboratory
study, three grain-binder attachments, a grain-drill, and a garden seed-
drill. Owing to lack of room, the department was obliged to refuse the
loan of a second threshing machine and traction engine,

8o Department of Farm Mechanics

There were also designed and purchased by the department two testing
or cahbrating stands, one for grain-drills, the other for garden seed-drills ;
three stands for mounting the binder attachments mentioned above ; five
benches ; models illustrating methods of igniting explosion engines, and a
stand for supporting these and similar models.

Over one thousand trade catalogues, price lists, leaflets of instructions
for operating special machines, and the like, have been collected, classified,
carefully catalogued and filed so as to be readily available for reference.
The work of cross-indexing will be perfected as funds and opportunity
permit.

Recommendations.

During the past year this department relinquished its claim to the
larger of its two rooms wdiich has since been converted into a labora-
tory for the Department of Soils, whose old quarters are now oc-
cupied by the Department of Plant Physiology. In addition, the
latter department has received a conditional promise that it shall
have next year the small room directly beneath it now occupied by
the Department of Farm Mechanics, thus leaving that department
without accommodation.

It is possibly in order at this time to note that in his inaugural ad-
dress in 1892, President Schurman recommended " a museum for
the exhibition of all kinds of agricultural implements " as one of the
important departments to be housed in the new agricultural build-
ings when they should be secured. The Stewart-Monroe bill provid-
ing for the erection of these buildings directs that provision shall be
made for the exhibition of machinery. It would thus appear that
if the changes now proposed are carried out, it will be absolutely
necessary next year to make some other adequate provision for the
housing of the Department of Farm Mechanics.

Two courses present themselves : Either to go to the Legislature
at once for money for a new building or to make use for the time
being of quarters which would next year be available. Considering
the needs of other departments of the College, money for which must
be secured in the near future, it would probably be impossible to
secure at this time funds sufficient for a suitable building, and the
writer would respectfully urge that no new building be attempted
until such time as there can be had one of capacity and appointment
amply sufficient for the needs of all of the engineering departments
of the College for some years to come. Furthermore, owing to the
youth of the Department of Farm Mechanics its requirements cannot
now be accurately foretold, and as this department would occupy

Department of Farm Mechanics 8i

the largest part of an engineering building this constitutes another
argument against the construction of a new one at this time.

The old University barn as soon as it is vacated, following the
completion of the new barns now under construction, will be avail-
able for some purpose and with moderate alterations could be made
suitable for the use of the Department of Farm Mechanics, for say
five years to come. In the basement could be located the shops and
a steam engine, the exhaust steam from which could be used for heat-
ing the shops, the offices and the one or two laboratory rooms on
the floor above. All the remainder of the building would be unheated
and used mainly for exhibition and storage of machinery, the p.resent
haymows being floored over for the purpose. Implements to be
studied would be run into the heated rooms when required. In order
to reduce the fire risk it would be highly desirable to use as a sepa-
rate gasoline engine room the two upper stories of the present ad-
dition to the east of the horse barns, which could be moved down
to the ground at the north of the main barn. Should this plan prove
too costly, however, some provision for this work could possibly be
made in the main building, but the restrictions imposed by the in-
surance companies for the use of gasoline engines in buildings would
materially hamper this important part of the work.

While there has been figured no accurate estimate of the cost of
the necessary changes in the barns, including the removal of the
cupolas and the putting on of a much needed new roof, it is prob-
able that the work could be done for the sum of $5,000. Money re-
quired in addition to this amount, if any, would be invested in mov-
able equipment which could be used in the new building when ob-
tained.

Adequate quarters having been provided, it would be necessary
at once to add at least two persons to the instructing staiT of this
department, one to assist in the laboratory instruction, and the other
to be foreman of the shops. Funds should also be provided for the
employment of a stenographer for at least half of each day, as the
writer is now obliged to spend in work of a purely clerical nature
many hours which might otherwise be employed much more to the
advantage of the department.

While considerable research work can be conducted by the aid of
advanced students, it would be advisable eventually to appoint a
thoroughly competent experimentalist to work under the direction

82 Department of Farm Mechanics

of the head of the department. In this way, much more and prob-
ably more exact work could be accomplished.

It will also be necessary in the near future to set aside somewhere
within easy access of the College a piece of ground for use in con-
ducting class work and in making experiments with agricultural im-
plements and ditching machinery.

HOWARD W. RILEY,
Instructor in charge of Department of Farm Mechanics.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

The work for the past year has been about equally divided between
teaching and experimental work.

Teaching Work,

In the teaching department, instruction was given to 48 regular students
of the sophomore year during one term (the instruction included
laboratory practice twice a week). A separate course of lectures was
given to about 75 special students. During the winter-course, 125 students
attended a course of lectures arranged for them. The separation of the
special and regular students sems to be very satisfactory, allowing a more
advanced grade of work to be given to the regulars.

Experimental and Extension Work.

The experimental work, which is conducted under an appropria-
tion from the State fund, has consisted chiefly in making chemical
analyses of materials sent in by other departments. A large number
of moisture determinations have been made of crops grown for ex-
perimental purposes. The requests for analyses of various materials,
as soils, fertilizers, feeds, insecticides, from the residents of the State,
is increasing rapidly and now takes most of the time of the assistant
in the laboratory. This work is done as part of the extension work of the
department.

Some preliminary work was done on the moisture and sulfur con-
tent of evaporated apples, but time and material were not sufficient
to warrant publication. It is planned to continue the Avork this fall.
If the coming year brings an increase of students and any marked
increase in the demand for analytical work, the facilities of the de-
partment will be taxed, and increased room and assistants will be
necessary.

GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH,

Assistant Professor of Chemistry.
83

EXTENSION OFFICE.

Teaching Work.

The only Collegiate teaching in this department is that with a
class in Extension Work numbering" 55 persons. The features of this
work are the organization of agricultural information of a practical
nature and practice in the technique of oral presentation of such in-
formation.

Extension Work.

The extension work consists partiall)^ in conducting the Reading-
Course for Farmers. Last year, 6,600 persons were in close touch
with our Reading-Course matter.

Active Correspondents.
Mailing list, active :

Old readers renewed 525

New readers 998

Total active readers '. . . . i)523

Others not enrolled as active Sjoo

Total distribution \ • 6,623

Total number of Farmers' Reading Course clubs . . . 21

Number of letters written 13.555

A large number of lectures were delivered by representatives of the
office, besides the arranging of a number of lectures from representatives
of other departments. Close attention was given to certain phases of
Extension Work in the schools, especially in the introduction of agri-
culture in the country school and the high school. The Farmers' Week
was held for the first time last February. It drew together some eight
hundred persons interested in agriculture, who wanted definite instruction.
A large number of agricultural organizations were entertained at the
College. A notable feature was the Rural School Picnic held on the 29th
of May. The New York State Agricultural Experimenters' League with
a membership of eighteen hundred was kept intact and experimental work

84

Extension Office 85

was laid out, prizes for which were awarded during Farmers' Week. In
connection with these different lines of activity, a heavy correspondence
has been developed.

Recom mendations.

The writer beheves that the keynote of the work lies in more personal
contact with people who want practical information, and the development
of a system which will handle the details in furthering such an end.
The writer therefore recommends that his work draw more heavily on
stenographic assistance and such departmental aid as is necessary to get
satisfactory information on the technical questions. The promotion of
the work must call definitely for all or part of the time of some person
in each one of the departments connected with extension work, that the
proper attention may be given to the problems in the field. These per-
sons, while remaining under the direction of their own departmental
heads, would confer with the Extension Office and with other persons
doing a similar work in their respective departments. This would result
in general extension conferences for the purpose of caucusing opinion
and systematizing efforts in the field.

CHAS. H. TUCK,

Assistant Professor of Extension Teaching.

HOME ECONOMICS.

Farm Home Extension.

Farmers' Wives'' Reading-Course. — The work of the Farmers' Wives'
Reading-Course is first for the individual member and second for groups
of women comprising farmers' wives' clubs. September 30, 1908, shows
the following membership in the Farmers' Wives' Reading-Course :

Series i , i,442

Series 2 i ,632

Series 3 2,059

Series 4 1. . . . 6,878

Series 5 . . 4,461

Series 6 7,228

Total 23,709

The bulletins sent out in each series are five each year as follows :

Series i. Farmhouse and Garden, (i) Saving Steps; (2) Decoration
in the Farm' Home; (3) Practical Housekeeping; (4) The Kitchen-
Garden; (5) The Flower-Garden.

Series 11. The Farm Family. (6) The Rural School and the Farm
Home; (7) Boys and Girls on the Farm; (8) Reading in the Farm
Home; (9) Home Industries; (10) Household and Garden Pests.

Series HI. Sanitation and Food. (11) Home Sanitation; (12) Germ
Life; (13) Human Nutrition; (14) Food for the Farm Family; (15)
Saving Strength.

Series IV. The Farm Table. (17) Flour and Bread; (18) Dust as
related to Food; (19) The Selection of Food; (20) Canning and Pre-

servmg.

After the fourth year the bulletins have been on subjects already intro-
duced into the previous bulletins and are a further treatment of these
subjects. A four-page discussion paper accompanies each bulletin. This

86

Home Economics. 87

contains questions with space for answers by the members. It is to be
returned to the supervisor of the reading-course for review. Opportunity
is also given to members to ask questions on domestic problems. These
questions, when necessary, are referred to the departments specializing
in the subjects to which the questions refer. The last year has shown
much advance in correspondence with members. Questions are asked
concerning the destruction of household insect pests, how to fumigate a
house after contagious diseases, how to preserve eggs, how to can
vegetables. Lists of books.for the home are afeked for both for children
and for those desiring special work in farming. Recent inquiries are,
Is there danger of ptomaine poisoning in the use of the hay box? Is
wheat starch for laundry purposes available on the market and what are
its advantages over other starch? Send diagram and description of a
septic tank for use in connection with the farm home. More and more
the Agricultural College is becoming an experiment station for the farm
home as it has been for the farm. A fuller and better equipment is con-
stantly needed for this purpose.

The Farmers' Wives Club. — Attention has been given during the past
three years to the organization of the farmers' wives' clubs. There are
now thirty-one active clubs with a total membership of nine hundred.
These clubs meet usually at the home of some member at intervals of
about two weeks. A program is given at these meetings which is partly
literary, and which also admits of discussions on woman's work in the
home. The basis of these discussions is found in the Cornell farmers'
wives' bulletins. The object of these meetings is to afford to rural women
social opportunities in their own communities and mental growth which
is stimulated by reading and discussion. The regular meetings of
farmers' wives' clubs are usually held in the afternoon at the home of a
member, the women doing their own driving, while special meetings are
held frequently in the evening with an attendance of men and a program
on home and farm subjects of interest to both men and women.

Traveling libraries. — The extension work has been aided by the use of
traveling libraries from the Department of Education, Albany. The Cor-
nell bulletins for farmers' wives can be only suggestive studies on various
subjects. They are written to arouse an interest in the subject, and at a
later stage in progress, books are necessary for the completion of the
work. Many clubs and groups of women have availed themselves of
these traveling libraries, which may be secured for the use of clubs for
a nominal fee to pay cost of transportation. Progress is particularly
noticeable where the traveling library has been used.

88 Home Economics.

Recommendations. — In view of an awakened interest in farm com-
munities in the study of scientific home-making, in view of the dependence
of everyone on the proper sanitary conditions in farm homes, and be-
cause of the existing conditions regarding water-supply and drainage, we
recommend a larger appropriation for the women's work. The amount
already appropriated supplies only in a meager way the printed bulletins
asked for, the maintenance of experimental work for simpler and better
housekeeping and the clerical help needed to answer questions and main-
tain the mailing lists. The present appropriation has furnished the means
for awakening enthusiasm through the State but it does not provide
adec|uately for sustaining the work. More and more are visits to clubs
and granges asked for and the present appropriation is not adequate for
the work. New York State has taken the initiative in extension work
for women. It should continue to lead in its further promotion. Other
states are fast following its lead and should continue to see New York
in advance.

Winter-Course in Home Economics.

Three years ago a winter course was established in Home Economics.
This is primarily for the farm home : to furnish to young women the help
necessary to create an interest in farm home life which will justify their
staying on the farm ; to place the work in the farm home on the same-
scientific basis as the work on the farm. The course offers instruction in
nutrition, sanitation, house construction, furnishing and general manage-
ment. In addition it is arranged to give women in attendance an oppor-
tunity to study out-of-door farm industries in which women frequently
engage. There are at least twelve periods a week, for three months,
including two or more laboratory periods weekly in which the members
of the class do practical work.

A Four Years' Course in Home Economics.

As an outgrowth of the reading-course and winter course of lectures at
the University, there has been developed a regular four-year course in
Home Economics. An urgent need has long been making itself felt for
more scientific training for women in household affairs. In some places
practical education for women has kept pace with other educational ad-
vantages, but, on the whole it has lagged. It is often easier for the
woman to become proficient in languages, mathematics or abstruse sciences
than to put herself in possession of those scientific facts which underlie

Home Economics. 89

the proper care of a home and children. It is in recognition of this need
that many agricultural colleges offer courses in Home Economics.

In the fall of 1907, the College of Agriculture at Cornell University
offered for the first time regular instruction in Home Economics. A
laboratory was equipped for experimental purposes and courses were out-
lined which should run through the four college years and lead to the
degree of the college. The object of these courses is to prepare the
woman to meet her home difficulties in the same scientific spirit as the
trained engineer, to enable her to plan as thoughtfully for human nutrition
as the educated farmer plans the balanced rations for his stock.

In outlining courses in Home Economics the needs of two classes of
students were considered : those wishing a general knowledge in home
topics but lacking the necessary scientific foundation for advanced work,
and those who have had certain prerequisite courses in science and who
are prepared to study the subject in a more detailed and technical manner.
It was recommended that a schedule separate from that of the regular
College of Agriculture be introduced to meet the needs of this second
class of students, as the prerequisites for instruction in Home Economics
should differ in part from those in Agriculture.

The laboratory equipped for the department was not ready until Feb-
ruary, 1908, and the plans for instruction in the four-year course were not
matured until later in the year, so that no students were registered for
the four-year course in Home Economics. Two general courses were
offered in Home Economics in the second term. One was a three-hour
course in nutrition and the other a two-hour course in sanitation and
household management. These were for students of any other depart-
ment in the college or any other college in the University. Thirty-six
students were registered in these courses.

Recommendations. — While the equipment of the laboratory is at
present adequate to fill the needs of a limited number of students, a need
has already been felt for space to equip a small kitchen which shall repre-
sent in a practical way a model for the housekeeper. The present appro-
priation is altogether inadequate to allow for more than bare running ex-
penses, and if the department is to plan for growth it is recommended
that a larger appropriation be made for added facilities, equipment, service
and space.

Martha Van Rensselaer,

Sivpen'isor Farmers' Wives' Reading-Course and Lecturer in Home

Economics.

Flora Rose,

Lecturer in Home Economics.

RURAL SCHOOL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL-
GARDENING.

Rural School Education.

The major part of the work in Rural School Education is a corre-
spondence course for teachers and children in rural districts. Last year
41,000 school children and 4,000 teachers in New York State were
reached. As a basis for the educational work, there are published each
month the Cornell Rural School Leaflets, one for teachers and one for
children. The teachers reported on work conducted under the direction
of this Department by means of the Leaflets, and thousands of letters on
country life subjects were received from childen. In the teachers'
Leaflet, lessons were given in many lines of agriculture by experts in the
several departments at the College. General outdoor study was given
for the young children and elementary agriculture for the pupils in the
more advanced grades.

An effort was made to investigate the need of apparatus in rural schools
to aid in agricultural instruction. Materials were sent from the College,
helpful in working out some of the lessons. Among other things, an
offer was made to send a Babcock milk test machine to each of the first
ten persons in ten different counties in New York State who would re-
quest them. Six weeks after the announcement was issued, fifty rural
school teachers had applied for the apparatus. In some of the smallest
rural districts, the machine was used not only for instruction in the school-
room but for instruction at Farmers' meetings, grange meetings, and the
like, in the vicinity. Children made tests of the milk from cows in the
neighborhood. The ten small machines cost about $50 and did good
service. A few of the districts to which these machines went have pur-
chased apparatus as permanent equipment for the school, and some
training class teachers have added them to their laboratory equipment.

In addition to the work in the schools, there has been started, by means
of the Leaflets, the organization of Farm Girls' Clubs and Farm Boys'
Clubs throughout the State. These Clubs will be under the direction of
a farmer in the community who will help the young persons to organize
their Clubs, and to do some useful work relating to country life.

An effort is being made from the College of Agriculture to direct recre-
ation for farm boys and girls. It is hoped to be able to standardize some

90

Rural School Education and School-Gardening. 91

good forms of play. The effort is to encourage games to be played not
only in the school yard and about the farm home, but that will open up
the way for wholesome competition at country picnics and county fairs.
Through the pages of the Rural School Leaflet the Department will en-
deavor to help direct the play hours of rural children.

In brief, it is the purpose of this department to help, in the most all
round way, the boys and girls living in the country ; to give suggestions
for better knowledge of farm work ; for better reading ; for better forms
of amusement in and about the farm home. An effort has been made
during the past year to send lecturers to teachers' institutes and other
educational meetings. Correspondence is kept up with institute con-
ductors, school commissioners, school superintendents and other persons
interested in educational matters, that the department may know the point
of view of persons who have to do with the public schools of the State.

School-Gardening.

A course in School-Gardening is given for the benefit of persons who
intend to give instruction in gardening. This consists in actual garden-
making with children on school grounds and in the University school
gardens. In winter, the work is conducted in the college forcing houses.
There were nine students in this course the past year, all of whom expect
to teach when they leave college.

Nature-Study and Elementary Agriculture at the Chautauqua

Summer School.

The work done by the New York State ^College of Agriculture at the
Chautauqua Summer School was in two departments: first, general
nature-study and biology; second, school-gardening and elementary agri-
culture. The larger part of the work in school-gardening and agriculture
was conducted by Professor C. H. Tuck and Mr. M. P. Jones ; the peda-
gogical work in nature-study and biology by Mr. x\rthur Allen and the
writer.

The Chautauqua Institution and the New York State College of Agri-
culture for a number of years have co-operated in the nature-study move-
ment. This year the College of Agriculture paid the expenses of the
writer, and the Chautauqua Institution paid the expenses and salary of
her assistant. There were in the classes about 80 students, nearly all of
whom studied during the entire course, spending three to four hours a
day in nature-study work. In this way, it was possible to send teachers
back to their schools with definite subject-matter and methods of pre-

92 Rural School Education and School-Gardening.

senting it. During the four weeks about forty New York State teachers
were taught. The Institution has provided all equipment for this work,
so that the opportunity is good to help teachers to appreciate the value
of knowledge based on scientific facts.

In the spring, the writer spent a few days in Chautauqua in order to
get a school-garden started. The purpose of this garden was to demon-
strate ideas in school-gardening in villages, as well as in rural com-
munities. There were about 350 feet of border, 8 feet wide, which
surrounded central plats planted with vegetables and flowers by school
children in the neighborhood. Another piece of ground was planted under
the direction of Professor Tuck. The garden was used also for the in-
struction of teachers at the Institution held at Chautauqua in September.

The writer feels that the foundation has been laid for effective agri-
cultural work in the large summer school on the Chautauqua assembly
grounds. The administration realizes the educational value of this work
and is willing to further it in every way. Next year, it is planned to
demonstrate in the garden the cultivation of garden products, annual and
perennial flowers, and as many vines as will grow in that climate. Ex-
periments in farm crops will also be given, that teachers and farmers in
Western New York may be instructed during the summer school session.

Course at Chautauqua: Nature-Study and Agriculture.

I. Lecture course in nature-study for teachers and parents. — This course
is designed to give teachers and parents a comprehensive outlook to the
teaching of nature-study. Suggestive lessons will be given for instruction
in school and home. Persons taking this course \vill be prepared to carry
on lines of out-of-door study intelligently. Representative lessons will
be given on birds, trees, wild flowers, garden plants, earth-science sub-
jects, and the like. Literature along outdoor lines will be discussed so
that persons will be able to continue study after completing the course.
Nature-study will be discussed from the standpoint of its educational,
practical, aesthetic, and ethical value. Enough subject-matter will be
presented to give teachers a starting place for future work.

Miss Alice G. McCloskey.

II. Fiehi zvork. — The time in this course will 1)C given to field and
laboratory work. Birds, trees, wood plants, and wayside plants will be
studied afield. Some work will be given on insect life, and teachers will
be instructed in methods of making a collection of insects. Wild life of
field and forest will be discussed. The making and stocking of terraria

Rural School Education and School-Gardening. 93

and aquaria will be demonstrated. Any student taking this course should
be able to get definite foundation for out-of-door study.

Mr. A. A. Allen.

III. Bird work. — For students who care to specialize in bird study there
will be an early morning class. This is the time in which birds can best
be studied, and since there are large numbers of birds on the Chautauqua
grounds the course will be most attractive and profitable. The field work
will be strengthened by talks on life history of the common birds.

Mr. A. A. Allen.

IV. Gardening. — This course is planned to demonstate the educational
value of gardening. There will be a piece of ground under cultivation, on
which teachers will conduct experimental work. There will be discus-
sions and demonstrations regarding the growing of garden plants, vege-
tables," and flowers. Lectures will be given on the preparation of the
ground; use of farm implements; soils; seeds; fertilizers; cultivation of
crops, etc. There will be plats cultivated by children in the neighborhood
from which teachers may gain experience in conducting school work in
gardening. From these plats there will be opportunity to learn what
children can and will do in this line of work. There will also be oppor-
tunity for teachers to judge the work of children, since the students
taking this course will award prizes on the work done by the children.

ALICE G. ^IcCLOSKY,

Supervisor of Nature-Study.

HOME NATURE-STUDY COURSE.

During the past year, the editors of the Home Nature-study Course
have made special effort to render the teaching of nature-study and
gardening easy for the untrained teacher, beHeving from past experience
tliat the information leaflet affords the most direct method for introducino-
nature-study subjects into the public schools of New York State. The
lessons in these leaflets have dealt with subject-matter suggested in the
Syllabus of Nature-study issued by the State Department of Public In-
struction, and covers the more important work of the fourth grade and
some subjects in the fifth grade. In each lesson, there is indicated the
object of the lesson, the material needed and the best way to secure it,
and there is given a series of questions covering the observations which
the pupil should make. These questions are in each case followed by a
paragraph giving the teacher the facts concerning the topic of the lesson
and suggestions as to methods of teaching it.

This plan seems to have helped the teachers very much ; and because
they have felt sure of the subject-matter they have gained confidence in
themselves, which has led them to give more time to nature-study. Many
letters received from the teachers who have used the leaflets contain ex-
pressions of satisfaction with this method of presenting the lessons, and
never before has the demand for the leaflet been so great. A large num-
ber of lessons sent in by pupils of the public schools last year dealt with
the topics given in the Home Nature-study Leaflets, thus proving that
these leaflets were used widely.

There have been published during the year four leaflets and one supple-
ment, making in all 128 pages containing jd nature-study lessons, and
also detailed directions for the planting of fall bulbs, the planting and
care of school gardens and grounds, vacation lot gardens and laboratory
gardens ; directions were also given for selecting and planting trees,
shrubs and perennials. The nature-study lessons, while giving some
attention to wild life, have been devoted, for a large part, to the study
of domesticated animals, birds, trees, cultivated flowers and garden
vegetables.

The department has received 1,200 letters and postals during the year

94

Home Nature-Study Course, 95

and has sent 1,000 letters and 3,000 postals to teachers, and 100 postals
to the training class teachers. It has sent the following leaflets :

October-November • • 397^

December-January 4447

February-March 475^

April-May 475°

All of the leaflets of the last two issues were sent except the 250 reserved
in the files. The department was unable to meet the demands for these
leaflets, and was obliged to send only one leaflet for two pupils in many
of the training classes. Although the leaflets have not demanded that
lessons be sent in return, the writers have received during the year 660
lessons, which were sent voluntarily by the recipients of the leaflets.

For the future of this work, it is earnestly recommended that the
leaflets dealing with the subject-matter of the State Syllabus of Nature-
study be published in book form sometime during the year 1909-10. This
seems the only way. of meeting the special need of the teachers of the
State, since our own appropriations are not sufficient to keep these leaflets
on hand in sufficient numbers to supply the demand.

ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK,

Lecturer in Nature-Study.

JNO. W. SPENCER,

Extension Work.

DEPARTMENT OF RURAL ART.

The course in Rural Art has now proved its vahie in the college
curriculum, not only by the number of students desirous of registering
in the work it offers, and the apparent good the course seems to have
done for those who have elected it, but by the constantly increasing
interest in the out-of-door life generally. The value of the course in
helping to bring before the people, particularly of the rural districts, a
better understanding of the possible beauty of their home surroundings,
has elected it for a use which will become known more and more as the
work of the course advances.

There have been many difficulties experienced in the formation of the
course, but the present year sees it, in every way, better equipped and
able to place before the student the full value and meaning of rural art,
or make of him a well-trained landscape designer. Future changes should
be in the detail of the course, rather than in its general outline or policy.

The greatest inconvenience so far has been the coming for instruction
of students who were not entirely prepared for this work, lacking many
of the prerequisites, — generally juniors, or seniors, with but one or two
years to give to the work. The course, too, is as yet hardly sufficiently
well known for students to enter the college with a recognized purpose
of electing the work. They generally learn of its merits after a year
or two of residence, spent in preparing themselves for some other branch
of agriculture having other prerequisites.

As a means of clearing the course of fhis and some other minor diffi-
culties, a committee has been appointed by the director of the college to
look over the course, primarily with regard to its detail arrangement,
with the purpose of bringing about a better relation between it and the
other departments of the college and the university. To aid the com-
mittee in its work, the writer has drawn up a four years' schedule of the
course.

In addition to this feature of the committee's work, some minor changes
have been suggested for immediate consideration. We mention here
only the change suggested relative to Course 86, treating of the Organog-
raphy of plant Material of Landscape Gardening. This course, as now
given, allows the student to enter with only a botanical knowledge of
plant materials, and it remains for the course to teach him, not only the

96

Department of Rural Art 97

landscape use and value of trees and shrubs, but their identification, which
is not possible in the time allotted to the course. As a remedy, Course 86
should be divided into two courses, — a preliminary or prerequisite course
which would teach the identification, characteristics and propagation of
plant materials, and a revised Course 86, dealing more distinctly with
the landscape value of plant material. It is suggested that this preliminary
course be given in the Department of Horticulture, with possible aid and
suggestion from the Department of Rural Art, and should be required as
early in the course as convenient, preferably in the Sophomore year fol-
lowing the Freshman botanical study.

Equipment.

Since the presentation of the last report, sufficient money has been
placed at the disposal of the department to equip it well. The past year's
appropriation was spent largely on surveying instruments and photo-
graphic or slide illustrations. Office equipment was given little considera-
tion, except for the purchase of a desk and a slide case, the office still
being a part of the general office of the Secretary of the College. The
present college year has seen a change for the better, and the department
is now located in a small but convenient room opening off the corridor
of the main building, giving the department a headquarters of its own,
and allowing for better office organization.

Sufficient drafting room space is still available in the College of Archi-
tecture, and in consequence, even though space is now at the disposal
of the department in the College of Agriculture, it has been thought best
to continue the drafting work there for the coming year.

Staff.

The teaching force consists of two members, an assistant professor
and an instructor. The work of Professor Baker in free-hand drawing
is closely allied to that of this department. The staff is adequate for the
present needs of the course, especially when supplemented by special
lectures given by men of practical experience, such as architects, nursery-
men and park superintendents.

A change has occurred in the personnel of the instructing staff, Mr.
Taylor having resigned at the close of the last college year, to accept a
position in the office of an eastern landscape-designer. In his place has
been appointed Mr. George C. Burnap, a former student and traveling
fellow in landscape architecture at the Boston Institute of Technology.

4

98 Department of Rural Art

In addition to the teaching work of the department, it is the intention
to bring to bear as strong an influence as is possible in the improvement
of rural school grounds. To accomplish this, the department, through
the teachers' leaflets issued by the college, will publish a series of short
articles on " Rural Art — Its Meaning and Possibilities." It is proposed
to offer, through these leaflets, to make plans for the arrangement and
improvement of the first ten rural schools sending to the department
the proper information on which to judge and base such recommendations,
stating that but one school in a county will be considered. In so reaching
the school, the department will indirectly reach the rural home. It is
hoped to be able to send from the department, not only additional litera-
ture, but an occasional lecturer whose duty it will be to explain the solving
of the simpler landscape problems, and to instill into the minds of the
listeners the value of good school and home surroundings.

Mention should be made of the ground improvements which are being
made about the new buildings of the college. During the Spring term
of last year, a complete road and planting plan was made for the imme-
diate surrounding of the building, the plan being studied with reference
to extensive proposed future improvements of the entire University
property. The roadways in the immediate vicinity of the buildings were
built last spring, and a considerable amount of planting done, which is
this fall fast nearing completion.

BRYANT FLEMING.
Assistant Professor of Rural Art.

Statement of Expenditures

99

Statement of expenditures, fiscal year 1907-1908, under State appro-
priation for the promotion of agricultural knowledge throughout the
State and for the maintenance, equipment and necessary material to con-
duct the New York State College of Agriculture.

September 30, 1908.

Salaries " $61,876 52

Office and printing 17-243 09

Farm maintenance 12,000 00

Farm crops i ,002 91

Soils 849 81

Chemistry 326 93

Plant physiology 1,566 67

Plant pathology 780 34

Entomology 492 38

Horticulture 5,oio 84

Animal husbandry 3>477 69

Poultry 3,716 18

Dairy industry 9,000 00

Rural art , . , 421 21

Farm mechanics 330 24

Home Economics 480 00

Reading courses 2,500 00

Extension 3,064 09

Nature-study 3,257 38

Rural economy 200 00

Graduate school 3-552 43

Heating buildings and forcing houses 3,000 00

Lighting 932 75

School gardens 39 13

Engineer, janitors, watchman, etc 5,737 17

Planting grounds 1,368 46

Balance to complete purchases and expenditures contracted
for but not yet completed so that actual payment could

be made 7,773 18

$150,000 00

NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE.

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND EXPERIMENT

STATION COUNCIL.

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.
ROBERT H. TREMAN, Trustee of the University.
LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College of Agriculture.
EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.
JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.
HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

FACULTY.

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, A.M., D.Sc, LL.D., President of the
University.

LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY, M.S., LL.D., Director of the College of
Agriculture, and Dean of the Faculty.

ISAAC PHILLIPS ROBERTS, M.Ag., Professor of Agriculture,
Emeritus.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, B.S., Professor of Entomology and
Invertebrate Zoology.

HENRY HIRAM WING, M.S., in Agr., Professor of Animal Hus-
bandry.

JOHN CRAIG, M.S., in Agr., Professor of Horticulture.

, Professor of Dairy Industry.

THOMAS LYTTLETON LYON, Ph.D., Professor of Soil Investiga-
tions.

HERBERT JOHN WEBBER, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Experimental
Plant-Breeding.

JOHN LEMUEL STONE, B.Agr., Professor of Farm Practice.

JAMES EDWARD RICE, B.S.A., Professor of Poultry Husbandry.

BENJAMIN MINGE DUGGAR, M.S., Ph.D., Professor of Plant
Physiology.

GEORGE WALTER CAVANAUGH, B.S., Professor of Chemistry in
its relations with Agriculture.

MARK VERNON SLIXGERLAND, B.S.A., Assistant Professor of
Economic Entomology.

100

New York State College of Agriculture loi

GEORGE NIEMAN LAUAIAN, B.S.A., Assistant Professor of Rural

Economy.
ALEXANDER DYER MacGILLIVRAY, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of

Entomology and Invertebrate Zoology.
WILLIAM ALBERT RILEY, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Entomology.
HERBERT HICE WHETZEL, A.B., Assistant Professor of Plant

Pathology.
ELINIER O. FIPPIX, B.S.A., Assistant Professor of Soils.
GEORGE FREDERICK WARREN, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of

Farm Crops.
WILLIAM ALONZO STOCKING, Jr., M.S.A., Assistant Professor of

Dairy Bacteriology^
JAMES GEORGE NEEDHAM, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of

Limnology.
LOW^ELL BYRNS JUDSON, A.B., B.S., Assistant Professor of Horti^

culture.
CHARLES SCOON WILSON, A.B., AI.S.A., Assistant Professor of

Pomology.
MERRITT WESLEY HARPER, M.S., Assistant Professor of Animal

Husbandry.
BRYANT FLEMING, B.S.A., Assistant Professor of Rural Art.
WILLIAM CHARLES BAKER, B.S.A., Assistant Professor of Draw-
ing.
CHARLES HENRY TUCK, B.A., Assistant Professor of Extension

Teaching.
CHARLES ALBERT PUBLOW, M.D., Assistant Professor of Dairy

Industry.
JAMES ADRIAN BIZZELL, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Soil In-
vestigations.
CLARENCE ARTHUR ROGERS, M.S.A., Assistant Professor of

Poultry Husbandry.
PAUL J. WHITE, A.B., M.S.A., Assistant Professor of Farm Crops.
HOWARD WAIT RILEY, M.E., Instructor in Farm Mechanics.
CYRUS RICHARD CROSBY, A.B., Entomologist to the Experiment

Station.
CHARLES FREDERICK CLARK, B.S., Assistant Agronomist in the

Experiment Station.
HAROLD ELLIS ROSS, B.S.A., Instructor in Dairy Industry.
CHARLES CLEVELAND HEDGES, B.A., Instructor in Agricultural

Chemistry.
LEWIS KNUDSON, B.S.A., Instructor in Plant Physiology.
DONALD REDDICK, A.B., Instructor in Plant Pathology.

102 New York State College of Agriculture

GEORGE ARTHUR CRABB, B.S.A., Instructor in Soils.

EDWARD RUSSEL MINNS, B.S.A., Instructor in Farm Practice and
Assistant Superintendent of the College Farms.

LEON DEXTER BATCHELOR, B.S., Instructor in Horticulture.

GEORGE WALTER TAILBY, Jr., B.S.A., Instructor in Animal Hus-
bandry, and Stockman.

ELMER SETH SAVAGE, B.S.A., Instn:ctor in Animal Husbandry.

Other Officers of Instruction and Administration.

JOHN WALTON SPENCER, Agent in Extension Work.

ALICE GERTRUDE McCLOSKEY, B.A., Supervisor of Nature-Study.

MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER, Supervisor of Farmers' Wives' Read-
ing-Course, and Lecturer in Home Economics.

ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK, B.S., Lecturer on Nature-Study.

WILFORD MURRAY WILSON, M.D., Lecturer in Meteorology (de-
tailed by Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture).

FLORA ROSE, B.S., Lecturer in Home Economics.

HUGH CHARLES TROY, B.S.A., Assistant in Dairy Laboratory,

WALTER WAGER HALL, Assistant in Cheese-Making.

WEBSTER EVERETT GRIFFITH, Assistant in Butter-Making.

HARVEY LYON AYRES, Superintendent of Dairy Manufactures.

CHARLES HERBERT \'AN AUKEN, Assistant in Animal Husbandry.

ALLAN FERGUSON, A.B., Assistant in Cheese-Making.

MINNIE JENKINS, B.S.A., Assistant in Dairy Industry.

ADA ELJR' A GEORGIA, Assistant in Nature-Study.

CLARA NIXON, Assistant in Poultry Husbandry.

JAMES CHESTER BRADLEY, M.S., Assistant in Entomology.

MARSHALL BAXTER CUMMINGS, M.S., Assistant in Horticulture.

FRED J. PRITCHARD, B.S., Assistant in Plant-Breeding in the Ex-
periment Station.

ARTHUR WITTER GILBERT, M.S.A., Fellow in Agriculture (Plant-
Breeding) .

HARRY HOUSER LO\'E, M.A., Assistant in Plant-Breeding in the
Experiment Station.

EUGENE PETER HUMBERT, M.S.A., Assistant in Plant-Breeding in
the Experiment Station.

JAMES OSCAR MORGAN, M.S.A., Assistant in Soil Investigations in
the Experiment Station.

HAROLD J. CONN, B.S., Assistant in Soil Investigations in the Ex-
periment Station.

GEORGE WALTER TAILBY, Foreman of the Farms.

CHARLES EDWARD HUNN, Gardener.

New York State College of Agriculture 103

HENRY JACKSON MOORE, Gardener to the Horticultural Depart-
ment.
WALTER GARNET KRUM, Superintendent of Poultry Department.
ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX, Librarian.
HERBERT W. TEETER, Superintendent of Plant-Breeding Garden.
EDWIN S. De LANY, Clerk.
GILBERT ARTHUR RENNEY, Superintendent of :\Iailing Rooms.

Special lectures are given by other members of the University staff,
by practical farmers, educators and others.

ORGANIZATION

Of The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.

ROBERT H. TREMAN, Trustee of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station.

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

EXPERIMENTING STAFF

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.

T. LYTTLETON LYON, Soil Investigations.

H. J. WEBBER, Plant Breeding.

B. M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology.
JOHN L. STONE, Farm Practice.
JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry.
MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.
GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.
ELMER O. PIPPIN, Soils.

W. A. STOCKING, Jr., Dairj- Bacteriolog>-.
HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.
G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops.
LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.
CHARLES S. WILSON, Pomolog}-.
M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.
CHARLES F. CLARK, Agronomy.
JAMES A. BIZZELL, Soil Investigations.

C. A. PUBLOW, Dairy Industry.
CYRUS R. CROSBY. Entomology.

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry- Husbandry.
P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

D. REDDICK, Plant Pathology.

E. R. MINNS, Farm Practice.
G. A. CRABB, Soils.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New
York State who request them.

104

JANUARY, 1908

BULLETIN 230

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERhVlENT STATION OF

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Veterinary College

BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS.

By VERANUS A. MOORE.
Professor of Comparative Pathology and Bacteriology,
New York State Veterinary College

ITHACA, N. Y.

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY.

105

ORGANIZATION

Of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE agricultural COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.
FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University.
LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station,
EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.
JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomolog}^
HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

experimenting staff

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.

RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry.

T. LYTTLETON LYON, Agronomy.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Plant Biology.

JOHN L. STONE, Farm Practice.

JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry.

MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.

GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.

ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation.

HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.

G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops.

W. A. STOCKING, Jr., Dairy Bacteriology.

LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.

CHARLES S. WILSON, Horticulture.

M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.

JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry.

CHARLES F. CLARK, Agronomy.

CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology.

J. B. NORTON, Plant Biology.

C A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry.

P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in
New York State who request them.

1 06

BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS

Bovine tuberculosis is one of the oldest diseases of animals of which
we have knowledge. It was known to the Israelites in the days of their
captivity and from then until now it has been a subject of much thought
and investigation. The opinions that have been entertained concerning
it have been vacillating, the decrees of one century as to its supposed
infectious nature and the use of the flesh of the infected animals often
being reversed by those of the following century. History shows that up
to the time of the introduction of modern scientific methods for the study
of disease, there was little that was definite in our knowledge of tubercu-
losis beyond the fact that it was a very destructive disease of both men
and cattle.

In 1865, tuberculosis was demonstrated to be infectious. In that
year, \'illemin showed that it could be produced in healthy animals by
inoculating them with pieces of tuberculous tissue. His results were con-
firmed by a number of other investigators. In 1882, Robert Koch dis-
covered the bacillus* (or micro-organism) of tuberculosis and thus com-
pleted the already abundant evidence that tuberculosis is a specific,
infectious disease. The finding of its specific cause led to many careful
and extended investigations into the nature of tuberculosis, the means by
which it is spread, and the measures that must be adopted if its spread is
to be checked. The results of these numerous inquiries have given us
very definite knowledge of the nature of the disease. It is believed that
this knowledge, if properly used, will enable every cattle owner to elimi-
nate tuberculosis from his herd, if it is there, and to keep it out, if it is
not there.

In order to have a clear understanding of what kind of a disease tuber-
culosis is, it may be well to compare it with some disease that is generally
known and recognized to be infectious. For this we may take diphtheria
in children. It is well known that diphtheria is caused by a micro-organ-
ism. This organism is known as Bacillus diplithcricc, or sometimes as the
Klebs-Lceffler bacillus, from its discoverers. It is also known that when a
healthy child is exposed (infected) by being brought in contact with a
child sick with diphtheria, the period of incubation (that is, the time
elapsing between the exposure and the time the symptoms of the disease
appear) is but a few days, and that the duration of the disease is short,
lasting but a few days or weeks at the longest. At the end of this short
period, the entire course of the disease has been run and the child is either
dead or well on the way to recovery.

^Bacteria (singular bacterium) is a general name for "germs" of a vegetable
or plant nature. A bacillus (plural bacilli) is one kind of bacteria, distinguished
by being much longer than broad. A micrococcus is a spherical bacterium. Gen-
eral terms used to designate many of these minute forms of life are " microbe,"
" germ," or " micro-organism."

Note. — This bulletin is a reprint of Bulletin 225, issued early in 1905, with
such changes and additions as are suggested by the increase of knowledge on
the subject.

107

io8

Bulletin 2cco.

W- ""^v

In tuberculosis we have similar
conditions, but they differ in detail
from those in diphtheria in three
very important points, — the length
of the period of incubation, the way
in which the specific bacteria pro-
duce the disease, and the time re-
quired for the disease to run its
course. With diphtheria the speci-
fic bacteria produce a toxm which
poisons the system, and this toxin
is the cause of death. In tubercu-
losis, the specific bacteria, do not
produce such a toxin, but they live
in one or more of the tissues of the
body, multiply there, and by their
increase penetrate deeper and
deeper into the organs of the body,
destroying the tissues as they go.
Finally the injured organs give rise
to symptoms, at first slight, but
gradually they become more and
more serious until death is pro-
duced, because some organ neces-
sary for the life of the individual
has been destroyed. While diph-
theria completes its course in a
few days or weeks, tuberculosis re-
quires for the same purpose
months and more often
years.

It is important that
both the specific, and the
infectious, nature of bovine
tuberculosis should be
understood. It is a specific
disease because it is pro-
duced by a single cause — the
tubercle bacillus. It is in-
fectious because the tubcr-

Fici. 128.— I Iw carcass uf an auiiiial killed for cle bacteria, the organisms
beef shotviiii^ tuberculosis of the liver, oineiiliDii ,, , , ,, ,.

and lungs. Generalised tuberculosis (Reynolds) . '^^^^^ produce the disease,

must first be taken into the

^v

Bovine Tuberculosis. 109

body. This may be accomplished by direct contact of an infected
with a healthy animal or by the bacilli being left in a manger, watering-
trough, or elsewhere by a diseased individual and later, but before
they die, being taken up by a well animal. Thus a barn containing
tuberculous cattle will become infected, and healthy animals placed in
such a barn before it is properly disinfected are very liable to contract the
disease. It is often said, that badly ventilated and poorly kept barns and
improper food cause tuberculosis. This is not the case. The disease
cannot develop in the absence of the tubercle bacillus, any more than corn
can grow in a field in which no corn has been planted. It is, however,
undoubtedly true that in poorly ventilated, dirty barns, the tubercle
bacilli may be distributed more rapidly than in sanitary stables, but poor
air and filth cannot of themselves produce tuberculosis.

In considering, from a practical point of view, an infectious disease
like tuberculosis, one must take into account several important features :
(i) the cause, (2) the method of infection, (3) the period of incubation, (4)
the dwation of the disease, (5) the zcay to detect or diagnose it, (6) the
zvay to control it. There are two other points of interest, namely: (7)
the status of the disease in the cattle in New York State and (8) the
necessity for experimental work in order to learn more about the disease.

I, Cause of tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis is caused by the bacillus of tuberculosis. It is a very
small rod-shaped micro-organism. It is so minute that ten thousand of
them might be placed end to end within the linear distance of an inch.
This organism has a peculiar property of retaining the stain used for
coloring it, so that it is possible to distinguish it from other bacteria by a
microscopic examination. It will kill guinea pigs when a very few of the
bacilli are injected into the subcutaneous tissue. It is also fatal to other
animals. The tubercle bacilli that produce tuberculosis in cattle differ
very slightly from the bacilli that cause tuberculosis in man, but it is
known that they belong to the same species. The Royal Commission on
Tuberculosis, appointed by the King of England in 1901, has made in-
terim reports in which it states that it has been unable to find any differ-
ence in the disease-producing power of the bacilli from certain human
and from bovine sources. Other investigations tend to show that the
bovine variety of tubercle bacteria is not found in a very large number of
tuberculous people.

This bacillus seems to be able to live for some time in dark and damp
places. It is readily killed with a five per cent solution of carbolic acid,
or a I to 1,000 solution of corrosive sublimate. Sunlight and drying are
not favorable to its existence outside of the body.

The tubercle bacilli escape from the diseased animal in the saliva and
mucus from the mouth when the lungs or certain glands are discharging

no

BULLETIX 250.

into the respiratory tract. It has recently been shown that tubercle bacilli
escape in large numbers with the intestinal discharges from many tuber-
culous cattle. They escape in the pus from tubercular abscesses that open
through the skin, and in the milk. It has been shown from all the exami-
nations that have been reported of milk from tuberculous cows, that
about fifteen per cent of them give ofif tubercle bacilli with their milk at
some time during the course of the disease. The udders show tubercu-
losis in about two per cent of the cases.

2. The method of infection.

Animals become infected with tubercle bacilli largely through the
digestive tract. The infection by means of inhaling particles of dirt or

dust carrying tubercle bacilli, or
by getting them into wounds of
the skin, is possible but certainly
not very common. Healthy cat-
tle "nosing" with infected ones or
feeding and drinking after them
is the most usual method of con-
tracting the disease. Feeding
calves with milk from tubercu-
lous cows is a common means of
])ropagating tuberculosis in a
herd. The slow development of
the disease makes it possible for
calves to be infected and fre-
quently not to show evidence of
tuberculosis for many years. I
have known of a very large
percentage of calves that were
fed upon milk of diseased cows
to give a good tuberculin re-
action (thus showing they were
suffering with active infections)
before they were six months old.
This is believed to be one of the very important ways by which the disease
is disseminated in breeding herds.

Tuberculosis is often found in swine fed upon milk from infected cows.
In 1903 the writer knew of a carload of hogs that had been purchased in a
district where there were many tuberculous cows, and of which the first
fifty-nine of them that were slaughtered were all tuberculous. The
remainder were not killed at that time. While such a condition may
be considered an cxce])tir)n. it i^ a fact that many swine are infected,

Fig. 129. — A dra-ivinf^ of the heart of a
steer that was killed for hccf. The heart
muscle is entirely surrounded by a dense
mass of tubercular deposit. There were
no other lesions found in the anunal.

Bovine Tuberculosis.

Ill

especially when they are fed tuberculous milk. The increase of tuber-
culosis in hogs is shown by the fact that in 1900, of 23,336,884 hogs
that were inspected by the Federal Government, 5,440 were affected
sufficiently to cause a condemnation of some one or more parts of the
carcass ; in 1905, of 25,357,425 hogs inspected post-mortem 46,919 car-
casses and 142,105 parts of carcasses were condemned for tuberculosis.
It should be remembered that the greater the percentage of tuber-
culous cows in the herd, and the further advanced the disease in the
cattle, the greater the danger of infection from the use of the milk. In
cases where the disease is restricted to small nodules in the lymphatic
glands, or perhaps in the lungs, the danger of tubercle bacilli being in
the milk is very slight, but when the udder is tuberculous they are con-

FiG. 130. — Liver of a cozv shoi^'ing tiuo small tuberculous deposits.
They zvere the only lesions found. The cow gave a typical
tuberculin reaction. Natural size.

stantly present in the milk and often in very large numbers. When
calves or pigs are fed with milk of this kind they are almost sure to be
infected. The same result may follow when it is fed to children or adults.

Practically the only way tuberculosis gets into a herd of healthy cattle
is by the introduction of a tuberculous animal or animals. It has often
happened that farmers who have perfectly healthy animals buy a nice
looking cow that is tuberculous, although the disease was not at all in
evidence, and sooner or later this animal infects a very large number
of individuals in the herd into which it is brought. The buying of in-
fected animals and the feeding of calzrs with infected milk are largely
responsible for the spread of tuberculosis in cattle.

The history of tuberculosis in cattle shows that when it is once intro-
duced into a previously uninfected district its tendency is to spread from
farm to farm with a rapidity which depends upon the activity of the cattle

112

Bulletin 250.

traffic. If the interchange of animals between herds is frequent the dis-
ease usually spreads rapidly. If, on the contrary, there is but little inter-
change of animals, tuberculosis spreads slowly in a newly infected
community. This observation relates to the spread among herds ; other
conditions govern the spread of tuberculosis in the herd after infected
animals are added. The latter factor is controlled by the degree of con-
tact between the diseased animals and their associates, and the sanitary
and other conditions to which the herd is subjected. The increase in the

'^W

!?-"' ^*-*"

& i Ifti^ ..

■'«*»»»"r

^*^J^.

3&-^

.jw*

% V

Fig. 131. — Tuberculous ulcers in the intestines of a cow.
These are not common in cattle. There are many worm
nodules on the intestines that are frequently mistaken
for tuberculous nodules.

cattle traffic is one reason why there is more danger of spreading tuber-
culosis now than there was a generation ago.

If a tuberculous cow is placed in confinement with other cattle, she will
convey the disease to them more certainly and more quickly than when
the animals are at liberty. As bearing upon this point, it has been noted
repeatedly that tuberculosis spreads more rapidly in herds when they are
confined in winter than when they are at pasture in summer, and there is
reason to believe that this difference is due, not to the season, but to the
intimacy of contact. Moreover, tuberculosis once introduced spreads with
increasing rapidity as the centers of infection are multiplied. So long
as there is but one infected herd from which it can spread in a district,

Bovine Tuberculosis. 113

the extending of the disease will necessarily be slow, but when ten herds
are infected from this one the progress of the disease will be ten times as
rapid, and when five herds are infected from each of the ten, the disease
will, other factors being equal, spread at fifty times the original rate of
progress.

3. Period of incubation.

In case of many of the infectious diseases, the time that elapses be-
tween the exposure (infection) of the individual and the time when the
disease appears is short and more or less uniform. This makes it possible
to quarantine suspected animals until after this period has passed and thus
ensure safety in placing them with the home stock. With tuberculosis
this period is not regular and it is not known how long it may be. Our
present knowledge of the subject shows that it varies from a few days to
as many months. Tuberculin (see page 115) docs not give a reaction dur-
ing this period. It is necessary, therefore, for safety that cattle which do
not react when purchased should be tested again in from three to six
months, as it is possible they were bought after they hail become infected
but in the period of incubation. This precaution is of great importance
in protecting a dairy. The newly purchased cows should, if possible, be
kept apart from the herd until after the second test.

4. The duration of the disease.

Tuberculosis is a disease of very slow progress. It often requires
years for it to destroy its victim. The tubercle bacilli multiply and pene-
trate into the organ to which they were first carried and gradually destroy
it. It often happens that the tubercle germs pass into the blood or lymph
and are carried to other parts of the body where each germ may start a
new tubercle. This is the condition known as generalized tuberculosis.
If general and acute, running a rapid course, it is called '* miliary tubercu-
losis " or " quick consumption." Fig. 129 illustrates a case of chronic
generalized tuberculosis.

When the diseased tissues are restricted to one organ, the condition is
known as localized tuberculosis (Fig. 130). When the organs in two of
the cavities, such as the lungs in the pleural cavity, and the liver in the
abdominal cavity, are affected the condition is known as generalized
tuberculosis. This is very important, as the meat inspection regulations
of this and other countries permit the flesh of animals suffering from local
tuberculosis to be used for food but when the disease is generalized it
must not be so used.""

* Following: are the United States regulations concerning the use of flesh of
tuberculous animals :

"Generalized" tuberculosis refers to that form of the disease in which the
bacilli have been disseminated through the blood and lymph, and in which a
number of organs are affected. " Extensive "' tuberculosis refers entirely to the

114 Bulletin 250.

When the disease is local, it often requires a very long time for it to
invade the organs sufficiently to cause the death of the animal. It may
happen that the germs of the disease are lodged in some organ, like a
lymphatic gland, that is not absolutely necessary for the life of the animal
and the entire organ may be destroyed without apparent injury to the
individual. If the diseased process is arrested before it has advanced too
far, even when it is in a vital organ, such as a lung, the liver, or the kid-
ney, the animal will continue to appear to be perfectly sound. Animals thus
affected are thought to be perfectly well, as they appear to be, but sooner
or later the disease becomes more extensive. It often happens that the
disease becomes arrested or temporarily healed, and remains so for a con-
siderable time, one, two or three years and even longer, when it may start
up again. Frequently, animals that are in a period of incubation or
that contain foci of arrested disease and which appear to be perfectly well,
are bought in good faith and placed in a healthy herd with the result that
they bring the disease and not infrequently transmit it to other animals.
Various manifestations of the disease are seen in Figs. 129-132.

It is very likely that some animals, especially cattle, are infected and
recover. This is to be expected in some cases where they are kept under
favorable hygienic conditions. At present, however, our knowledge of
recovery from tuberculosis in cattle is too meagre to warrant much en-
couragement from this source. It is safer and more economical not to
trust to a recovery. An animal that once reacts must be considered sus-
picious thereafter. However, a few such animals remain well until they
die from other causes.

5. How to detect tuberculosis in cattle.

From what has been said about the course of the disease, it is perfectly
clear that there may be a large number of animals in a herd that are

amount of tuberculous matter and the number of tubercles, and may apply to a
case which is confined to one of the body cavities.

(i) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are limited to one group
of lymphatic glands or one other organ.

(2) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are limited to two groups
of visceral lymphatic glands in either the thoracic or the abdominal cavity.

(3) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are limited to two visceral
organs (other than lymphatic glands) in the thoracic or the abdominal cavity,
provided the lesions are slight, calcified, and encapsulated.^

(4) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are limited to one group of
visceral lymphatic- glands and one other organ in the thoracic or abdominal cavity,
provided the lesions in the affected organs are slight.

(5) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are confined to two groups
of visceral lymphatic glands and one other organ in the thoracic or the abdominal
cavity, provided the lesions are slight, calcified, and encapsulated.

(6) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are confined to the lungs,
the cervical Ivmphatic glands, and one group of the visceral lymphatic glands of
the thoracic cavity, provided the affection is slight and the lesions are calcified
and encapsulated.

(7) The carcass shall be condemned when well-marked lesions are discovered
in both the thoracic and the abdominal cavity.

Bovine Tuberculosis. 115

infected with tuberculosis but which appear to be sound. There may be
others in which the disease is far advanced and the animals show that they
are affected. There are two ways by which the disease can be detected,
namely, by a physical examination and with tuberculin.

The physical examination is of value in advanced cases only, or when
the diseased part is in evidence, as for example in the lymphatic glands of
the head. Experience has shown that by this method one is unable to
find more than a very small percentage of the animals that are tuberculous
and a menace to the healthy cattle. This method, therefore, is a very
crude one and cannot be trusted except in the very advanced cases and in
those in which the early stages of the disease are in evidence externally.

The tuberculin test is far more reliable. There have been many
unjust things said about tuberculin and many cattle owners have come to
fear that it is a dangerous agent to use. Much of this fear came from
statements made regarding its possible ability to stimulate latent nodules.
The work of the last ten years has not confirmed the earlier opinions but
to the contrary it has shown that tuberculin in proper doses is as harm-
less as need be to the health of the cattle. The dangers that are supposed
to come from it are the results of poor tuberculin, unclean instruments,
carelessness, or other avoidable causes.

Tuberculin. Tuberculin is the liquid, usually glycerinated bouillon,
on which the tubercle bacilli have multiplied or grown. It is concentrated
after heating and removing the bacteria and a little carbolic acid or thy-
mol is added to preserve it. The active principle of tuberculin is a sub-
stance resulting from the multiplication and maceration of the tubercle
bacilli in the liquid. In its preparation it is necessary that the tubercle
bacilli " grow " sufficiently, which usually requires several weeks before
the liquid is used. The flasks containing " cultures " as they are called, are,
when ready, heated for some time at the boiling point. The liquid is then
filtered to remove the bacilli, the fluid is then concentrated over a water
bath. It is again filtered through a porcelain filter and stored. It will be
noticed, that tuberculin is heated at two different times during its prepara-
tion sufficiently to kill the tubercle bacilli and it is also filtered through a
substance that would remove the tubercle bacilli, if any escaped the first
filtration. When ready for use tuberculin is a clear, amber colored liquid.
The intensity of its color varies according to the amount of blood pigment
in the meat from which the bouillon was made.

Tuberculin cannot possibly produce tuberculosis, because it does not
contain any tubercle bacteria. There is no evidence that in cattle it excites
a latent tubercle into activity, or that it tends to make the disease icorse. It
is used the u'orld over and as yet no authentic report of injury caused by
its use has been recorded. It has been used in the treatment of tuber-
culosis in man and there are several physicians who have reported favor-

ii6

Bulletin 250.

Fig. 132.—^ pholograph showing the tubercular dejwsils on the pleural surface
covering the ribs of an advanced case of generalised tuberculosis {ReynoUs),

Bovine Tuberculosis.

117

able results with it. All those who have worked with tuberculin are
agreed that it is one of the safest and surest tests in detecting the presence
of active tuberculosis that is known to the medical world. All are agreed,
however, that it must be properly used, and that all those physical con-
ditions that would tend to interfere with it must be avoided. If in its use
these precautions are taken, tuberculin is as sure as any reagent. .

If the animal is sound when tuberculin is injected, no reaction is
observed. If, however, the animal contains an active tubercle there is a
reaction which shows itself in a rise of the temperature beginning from
six to sixteen hours after the injection and continuing for from six to ten
hours and possibly longer. Fig. 134 shows the curve of the temperature
reaction after injecting the tuberculin in a tuberculous animal. There is
in some cases a general depression in the appearance of the animal in addi-
tion to its elevations of temperature.

The interpretation of the temperature record requires care. If, how-
ever, all conditions pertaining to the protection of the animal have been
fulfilled, the temperature curve mentioned is a very sure indication that
the animal is suffering from an active, although it may be a very small,
tuberculous growth. A good reaction will take place when the active
tubercle is so small that it is difficult to see it. The so-called failures to
find the disease after the reaction
have been due in many cases to the
fact that the bone marrow, brain
and inter-muscular tissue were not
carefully examined. Small lesions
in the lymph glands are also easily
overlooked. If there is no reaction
the correct interpretation is more
difficult. In this case there are
three conditions which must be
taken into account, namely :

(i) If the animal is extensively

diseased, it may not react. In this

case the physical condition would

show that the animal was at least Fig. 1^3.— The germs or bacilli that cause

, 1 1^, rx-, , tuberculosis. Much magnified.

not healthy, there are a number

of cases on record where the tuberculin was accused of failing to react

when the disease present was not tuberculosis at all but actinomycosis,

fungous diseases, or other disorders resembling somewhat in appearance

a tuberculous condition,

(2) If the test was made during the period of incubation there would

be no reaction although the disease may soon develop. To overcome this

danger, a subsequent test should be made in from three to six months.

ii8 Bulletin 250.

(3) It is known that cows that have reacted, may, because of the
arrest of the disease, fail to react subsequently but still later the disease
may start up again, when the animal will react. We have records of many
cases of this kind. Great care must be exercised, therefore, in the inter-
pretation of negative results, especially of tests made in herds where
tuberculosis exists, and where it is possible that the animals failing to
react have already been infected.

In applying the present knowledge of tuberculosis to the purchase or
exchange of cattle on the tuberculin test, it is safe to consider animals
that react to be suffering with active tuberculosis ; but if they do not
react they must not be considered to be absolutely free from infection,
especially if they are taken from a herd in which tuberculosis exists.
The longer the disease has been in a herd and the larger the number of
animals that are infected, the greater are the chances that those which
fail to respond will react if tested at a later date, from the fact that
tuberculosis which has become latent or healed may " break out " or
become active again, or because the animals have been infected but have
not yet developed the disease. For example, a few years ago a large
herd was tested and many of the animals reacted. Those that did not
react were placed in a new barn and after three months they were retested
and several of them responded. Three months later a few more reacted.
These later tests discovered the individual animals that were infected but
in the period of incubation, or those in which the disease was tem-
porarily arrested at the time of the first test. When there are very
few reactions at the first examination, the subsequent ones are usually
negative. Tubercle bacilli in a herd of cattle are much like weeds in a
garden, — • the more there are at the time of the first weeding the more
there are liable to be at the second cleaning. When most of the animals
in a herd respond to the test, all the others must be regarded with
suspicion. When only a few in any herd respond, it is less likely that
any of the remainder are infected.

In a herd where the Bang method was being carried out, the retest of
the animals that reacted gave a negative result in about 20 per cent of
the cases. Some of these continued not to react for one, some for two
and others for three years ; but the greater number reacted again after
one or more negative tests. These facts are convincing that animals
which react once to tuberculin should not be considered safe to return to
the sound herd, although some of them may recover.

The subsequent reactions and non-reactions are often difficult to
understand by those not versed in the nature of tuberculosis. They
are, however, not more mysterious than many other phenomena.
They are in perfect harmony with the natural course of the disease.
Tuberculosis is the result of little organisms living on the tissues

Bovine Tuberculosis.

^

/

\

^

/

k

tSi

■<

/

\

\

>

^

/

v-\

^

/

1

^

/_

1

1

^

. >

^""

Y"

^

y

\

«>i

^

/

^

/

1

^

/

/

v:

/

/

/

^

y

<^

/

/

V

/

/

N

/

1

r

(

1

^

\

*■

^

\

/

<>:

\

\

—

%

"^

\

1

N

X

s^

/

<

J^

x^

/

^

^

>^

/

W

y\

N

c^

\

^

X

V

\

«*5

Ns

^

^

X

K

^

V

<

No

^

X

^

X

^

^

<^

, — \

Vi

^

^.

,,f^

<

'^

^*

^

*o

•^

^

^.

•

•

^

^

1 ^'

^

^

*^

'^'

^

^

<^

kS^

^

^

5^

^

^

^

^s

\

N

X

\

^

\

\

120 Bulletin 250.

of the animals, and whether they multiply continuously or become
checked in their activities depends upon the degree of the resisting
force of the animal and possibly the invading ability of the organisms.
It is a struggle between two opposing living forces, and sometimes one
and sometimes the other is in the lead. When this parasitic nature of
tuberculosis is understood, there will be less difficulty in comprehending
many of the seemingly contradictory manifestations- It is the neglect
of these natural but subtle tendencies and powers of tubercle bacteria
that has enabled them to make headway and gain entrance to the tissues
of cattle when the owners have thought they were very careful to guard
against them. For example, after a herd has been tested and the reacting
animals destroyed, it is possible that no further attention has been
given to the remaining cattle, some one or more of which may later
develop the disease and spread it to the other animals in the herd.
This unfortunate condition is not the fault of the first test, but of the
failure to make subsequent ones. The purpose must be to avoid the
possibility of infection.

6. The control of tuberculosis.

The real problems relating to tuberculosis before the cattle owners
are the prevention and the eradication of this disease. They resolve
themselves into the best methods to follow under two distinctly different
conditions, namely: (i) when the herd is free from tuberculosis, and
(2) when a greater or less number of animals are already affected.

The protection of Jiealtliy herds.

In preventing the entrance of a specific disease, it is simply necessary
to keep out the microbe that produces it. The important question to
consider in this connection is, how to keep it out. I have already
mentioned the two most common channels that are know^n through
which tubercle bacteria gain entrance to a herd of uninfected cattle,
namely, (i) through the feeding of calves with the unsterilized milk
from creameries and possibly the whey from cheese factories where the
milk from tuberculous cows is received, and (2) the introduction into
the herd of a tuberculous animal or animals. The prevention by cutting
off these channels of infection is not difficult nor expensive compared with
the elimination of the disease if introduced or the loss it will occasion if
allowed to remain.

To guard against the first it is necessary to sterilize the milk fed to
calves, unless it is known that the animals from which it came are free
from the disease.

To avoid the second danger, it is necessary to have all the animals
carefully examined and tested with tuberculin before bringing them into
the herd. The tuberculin should be applied by a competent person who

Bovine Tuberculosis. 121

appreciates the necessity of complying with every precaution necessary
for obtaining the correct results of the test. If the cows come from a
tuberculous herd they should be retested in a few months. Russell has
pointed out the great danger of buying cows from infected herds without
the proper use of tuberculin.

The handling of tuberculous herds.

In herds in which the disease already exists to a greater or less
extent, the problem is far more difficult. The diseased animals sooner
or later become a source of expense and loss rather than profit. The
danger of spreading the infection to calves, swine and possibly children
by the use of infected milk is too great to take chances with tuberculous
cows. The loss of valuable strains of animals and the stigma of having
a diseased herd are further reasons for eliminating the disease. It is
clear that a dairyman cannot afford to have tuberculous cows in his herd.*
The question is, how can a man who has such a herd eliminate the
disease with the minimum loss?

There are at least three procedures to choose from: (i) The total
destruction of the infected animals; (2) their slaughter for beef under
proper inspection, procuring the meat value of those that are only slightly
infected; (3) the application of the Bang method.

(i) The slaughter of infected aiiiuials. The plan of total destruction
(except for fertilizer purposes) is based on the assumption of State aid
for at least partial compensation of the owner. This method has not
proved entirely satisfactory because of lack of appropriation to pay
for the cattle and, further, because it calls for an unwarranted destruction
of property in cases of annuals suitable for beef that are found upon post-
mortem to be oily very slightly diseased. In many herds where a large
number of animals react and where the infection has not been of long
standing, a very large percentage of the cattle have a beef value, but the
few badly diseased animals have no value and their destruction is the most
economic disposition to make of them. If the herd has been infected
for a long time, a large percentage of the animals are liable to be suffering
with advanced generalized tuberculosis.

(2) Utilising slightly infected animals for beef. The plan of using the

^Tuberculosis destroys by death a certain number of animals after the disease
has become established in a herd.

Tuberculosis causes a waste of food by feeding- it to animals that are diseased
and cannot ffive an adequate return.

Tuberculosis causes heavy losses by infecting- other animals, such as swine,
calves and adult cattle through the milk and by contact. The enormous annual
lost trom tuberculosis in swine illustrates the latter point.

Tuberculosis reduces the productive and market value of the cows. As soon
as there is physical evidence of its existence the animals have practically no
market value.

Tuberculosis destroys the good reputation of a herd, which renders it diffi-
cult to sell the animals and often to dispose of their products.

122 Bulletin 250.

carcasses for beef if they pass inspection, is in harmony with the Federal
meat inspection service and also with the meat inspection regulations of
other countries. Large numbers of animals affected with localized
tuberculosis are passed for food annually by our government inspectors.
In Germany the meat of more extensively tuberculous animals is sterilized
and then sold for food at a lower price.

The Wisconsin law permits the Live Stock Sanitary Board to sell
reacting animals to slaughter-houses having a Federal inspection. By
this method thousands of dollars are saved annually by the State toward
the payment for the reacting animals from the moneys received for
cattle that pass the inspection. It is hoped that our legislature will
provide for the economic disposition of animals that are slightly infected
with tuberculosis. The Board of Health regulations in many places
prohibit the sale of meat from infected animals, no matter how slight the
infection and yet they do not provide for a meat inspection. This
excludes the legal use for food of animals that react to tuberculin though
in good condition, but it does not prohibit the sale of animals not known
to be infected at the time of slaughter. This leaves the passing on
the unwholesomeness of the carcass to the butcher, who is interested
financially and who is not skilled in the diseases of animals. It is
equitable to give the small owner the same privilege of disposing of
his animal or animals that is accorded the large packers who have
government inspection. The State of Pennsylvania has state inspectors
who examine the carcasses of cattle that are slaughtered for beef after the
tuberculin test, when they are killed in local slaughter houses. This pro-
tects the people and affords an exit for the slightly infected animals.

(3) The Bang method. The Bang method for handling tuberculosis is
the procedure recommended and carried into effect in Denmark by
Professor Bang of the Copenhagen \^eterinary College.*

The object of this method is to replenish a tuberculous herd with as
little loss as possible. It requires that all animals that show physical
symptoms of the disease shall be destroyed. Those which give a tuber-
culin reaction but which exhibit no evidence on physical examination of
their being tuberculous, are isolated. They are kept for breeding purposes.
The reacting animals are carefully watched and if any of them develop
obvious symptoms of the disease they are slaughtered. The stables
from which the diseased animals are removed are thoroughly disinfected.

The method as originally proposed has been modified from time to
time in accord with increased knowledge of the disease and the conditions
under which it exists. Its success lies in the fact that it conforms to

* Bans. B. The stru£?glc with tuberculosis in Denmark. The Veterinarian,
Vol. LXVII (1895), P- 688.

Bang, B. Tuberculosis of cattle. Penn. Dept. Agri., Appendix Bull. 75, 1901.

Bovine Tuberculosis. 123

the chronic nature of the disease and its tendency to become arrested.
The large percentage (35.4 per cent) of dairy cows in Denmark that
reacted to tuberculin, suggested the importance of replenishing the herds
with healthy cows before the total destruction of the reacting ones.
The method is summarized in the following statements :

1. A herd is tested with tuberculin. The animals that are in a bad
condition are slaughtered. The reacting animals that show no physical
evidence of the disease are isolated. They are kept for breeding pur-
poses.

2. The offspring from the reacting cows are promptly removed from
their dams and fed milk from non-reacting cows, or the pasteurized
(heated to a temperature of 85° C. or 185° F.) milk from the reacting
ones. The milk of the isolated cows after pasteurization is also used for
human food.

3. If any of the isolated cattle give evidence of the disease advancing,
such as enlarged glands or emaciation, they are slaughtered.

4. The non-reacting animals are tested from time to time, and if any
individuals react they are placed with the isolated ones.

5. The calves that are raised from the reacting cows and which fail
to react to tuberculin, are placed in the sound herd.

It is important to test, with tuberculin, calves that have been born of
tuberculous dams and raised on pasteurized milk of tuberculous cows
for the reason that it is possible through inadvertent accidents that some
of them have become infected. In my observations in various herds,
from one to four per cent of the calves brought up under these conditions
have reacted to tuberculin at six months of age, but very rarely after
that if proper precautions are taken.

As the sound herd is replenished, the isolated cattle may be fattened
and killed, under proper inspection, for beef (See page 273). In this
way the people of Denmark have been able greatly to reduce the very
high percentage of tuberculous cattle and at the same time to minimize
the loss they previously sustained by the death of diseased animals.

The Bang method, modified to suit the local conditions, has been
applied with great success in Hungary, where the reports show that
many highly infected herds have been freed of the disease in from
four to six years. In Norway and Sweden, the results have been equally
good. Professor Regner'^^ states that the percentage of reacting animals
among 36,149 cattle was, at the beginning of the application of this
method, 33.6 per cent. After a period of two to nine years, in
different herds, it has been reduced to 4.7 per cent.

This method has been applied with success at the Wisconsin Agri-

*Regner, Gustav. The suppression of tuberculosis among domesticated ani-
mals. Eighth International Veterinary Congress, Budapest. Sept., 1905.

124 Bulletin 250.

cultural Experiment Station,* at the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station (Geneva) f and by several private cattle owners.
The Hon. W. E. Edwards, of Rockland, Ontario, Canada, used it in the
handling of his valuable herd. In 1903. at the meeting of the American
Veterinary Medical Association, he read a forceful paper!]: on his
experience with the method, a few lines of which I quote : " The
question arises, can tuberculosis, one of the most constant diseases
present in our animals, be eradicated? My answer is, yes, most em-
phatically. I am fully convinced of the reasonable possibility of the
eradication of tuberculosis from our herds and of the maintenance of
sound herds."

It is not the purpose of the Bang method to return to the sound herd
animals that have reacted, but which, after a period of one or more years,
fail to react. Experience has shown that a variable number of reacting
animals will remain apparently in a sound condition. The method has
two redeeming features : first, it requires the elimination of cattle that
have no real value because of the advanced stage of the disease ; and,
secondly, it enables the owner to obtain the actual worth of the others.
Its success has been possible because of the great value of tuberculin in
detecting the infected animals that still appear to be in perfect health
and in which the disease has just begun.

The success that has come from the application of the Bang method,
in Europe and in many herds in this country, warrants its recommenda-
tion to those who have valuable animals infected. There may be modi-
fications and changes necessary to make it fit the conditions, but these
are in harmony with the procedure. Professor Bang encountered much
tuberculosis in the cattle of Denmark, and by the persistent application of
conservative methods the disease has been reduced in a few years to
such an extent that it is no longer a burden or a menace to the people.

Although the law in this State is based on the theory of eradication
by slaughter of infected animals, the Commissioner of Agriculture is
willing to allow any owner of a tuberculous herd tested by the State to
adopt the Bang method instead of having the reacting animals destroyed.
This is of great value, especially to the owners of valuable herds.

In the control of tuberculosis, it is well not to forget that it is a per-
sonal matter, and that prompt and active efforts to eliminate the disease
should be put forth by all those who have infected herds. Each man
should be master over the diseases that may threaten his herd.

*Russell, U. L. The history of a tuberculous herd of cows. Wis. Agr. Exp.
Sta., Bull. 78, 1899.

.tHarding, H. A.; Smith, G. A.; Aloore. V. A. The Bang method of con-
trolling tuberculosis, with an illustration of its application. Bull. No. 277. N. Y.
Agr. Exp. Sta., Geneva, N. Y., 1896.

J Edwards, Hon. W. E. The Bang system for the eradication of tuberculosis
in cattle. Proceedings of the Am. Vet. Med. Asso. 1903, p. 124.

Bovine Tuberculosis. 125

Sonic principles to be observed in the elimination of bovine tuberculosis.

If tuberculosis is not allowed to spread to uninfected animals and the
infected ones are disposed of as promptly as possible, tuberculosis will
soon disappear. In facing the discouragements of finding tuberculosis
in his herd, the dairyman should consider these conditions :

1. There are some cattle suflFering with advanced tuberculosis. These
are of no value, but a menace to the health of the herd and consequently
should, for economic reasons, be promptly destroyed,

2. There are many infected, though but slightly diseased animals,
that are poor milk producers but which do have a good beef value.

3. There are presumably many valuable strains of cows and many
high bred animals that are infected though but slightly diseased. The
value of these animals is in their ofifspring quite as much or more than in
their milk production. The Bang method affords a means for preserving
these animals and procuring their offspring without danger to others.

4. There are large numbers of uninfected herds, and many cows in
the infected ones, that should be carefully protected from infection,

5. Tuberculosis can not spread unless the bacteria that produce it
are brought by some means to the uninfected animals. They are most
commonly carried by infected individuals or their products.

Practical procedure. — As it is to the advantage of every cattle owner
to have a sound herd, the greatest progress will be made in the eradication
of tuberculosis when the greatest number of owners take up the work of
elimination for themselves with the aid of competent veterinary advice.
The first steps to be observed in the procedure against tuberculosis may
be summarized as follows :

1. Promptly eliminate from the herd all animals that have tubercu-
lous udders or that give evidence of being tuberculous. This will greatly
reduce the danger from the milk,

2, As soon as possible, have the tuberculin test applied to all the
remaining animals to ascertain which individuals are infected. These
are the ones that are still dangerous to the herd,

3, Separate the well animals from the infected animals. When the
reactors are pointed out, the most economic method of dealing with them
must be determined from the local conditions.

4. The stables is which the diseased cattle were kept should be
thoroughly disinfected.

5. The non-reacting animals should be tested every six months until
all those previously infected are detected and removed. This will leave
a sound herd which will remain so if properly protected,

6, In buying cattle, great care is necessary not to bring infected
animals into the sound herd. They should be carefully tested with
tuberculin, and retested in three to six months and all reactors removed.

126 Bulletin 250.

7. It may be found desirable, in order to replenish the herd with sound
animals, to modify present methods and raise more calves and to add a
smaller number of cows by purchase. The first purpose is to obtain a
sound herd, and it may be possible that the quickest and cheapest method
will be to raise it.

The demand for the eradication of all reacting animals arises very
largely from the common opinion that tuberculosis is freely transmissible
from animals to man. The question is less one of danger to human beings
than of menace to the cattle industry, although, of course, its relation to
public health should not by any means be overlooked.

7. The status of bovine tuberculosis in New York.

In dealing with a great problem, it is desirable to know as many
facts about it as possible. There are those who feel that there is a large
amount of tuberculosis in our cattle and others who say there is not.
The unrestricted entrance until recently of dairy cattle from without
and a lack of rigid precautionary measures in the interchange of animals
within the State, have caused much concern relative to its effect upon
the spread of tuberculosis in the cattle of the State. It cannot be denied
that such methods have afforded abundant facilities for the dissemination
of tubercle bacteria.

In order to determine the extent to which the disease has spread,
I have collected and compiled the results of a number of tests that
have been made during the last two or three years, but largely in 1907,
by a considerable number of veterinarians to whom this College furnishes
tuberculin. The results show that of 421 herds tested, 302 contained
reacting animals. These herds contained a total of 9,633 animals, of
which 3,432 reacted. They were distributed in 39 counties. The greater
number of the tests were made for one or the other of three different
reasons, namely, (i) when the herd was suspected of being diseased, (2)
when the purchasers of animals required the test before accepting the
cattle and (3) when the purchasers of the milk or its products required
that they come from healthy cows.

The official tests by the State Department of Agriculture for the years
1904-6 inclusive, kindly furnished me by Dr. Kelly, include 262 herds
with a total of 3,088 animals, of which 673 reacted. They were distributed
in 50 counties. These herds all came under the operation of the law.
Infected animals were found in 121 herds.

The reliable available data, therefore, are restricted to the testing
of 683 herds, aggregating 12.721 animals. The animals were distributed
in fifty counties. Of the 683 herds, 423 contained reacting animals. A
very small percentage of the animals showed physical symptoms of the
disease. Although these figures show a somewhat extensive infection of

Bovine Tuberculosis. 127

the herds examined, it must be remembered that they represent only
about one-half of one per cent of the cattle in the State.* It is clear that
general deductions should not be drawn from the condition found in so
small a percentage of animals. The conclusion, however, seems to be
well founded that tubercle bacteria have improved their opportunity
and have become quite widely distributed in our cattle.

The insidious nature of tuberculosis and the exceptional opportuni-
ties afforded for its spread, are largely responsible for the extent of the
disease. If there is more tuberculosis in the cattle of one locality than
there is in another, it is because the opportunities for its spread have been
better. Every case must have been contracted in some manner from a
previous one. Unfortunately, the subtle nature of this affection has not
been sufficiently understood by many to enable them to recognize the
facts concerning it. As a consequence, many dairymen have neglected to
take precautions to protect their herds. As knowledge of the means of
dissemination and the course of tuberculosis itself in the body of the
infected animal increases, it is made clear that many of the efforts that
have been put forth to prevent it have not succeeded because they
failed to prevent the entrance of tubercle bacteria. The knowledge
derived from the application of the Bang method, the opportunities for
repeated and frequent tests and autopsy, have brought out many very
important facts relating to the course of this great scourge of cattle,
and there is no longer any reason for mere guessing or for hopeful
neglect.

Although bovine tuberculosis seems to be irrepressible, it is not such
an unconquerable enemy as it may appear. If we stop its spread it
must disappear with the present infected animals. There are in addition
many decided improvements. The most important of these are: (i)
the enforcement of the law to prevent dairy cattle from coming into the
State unless they pass the tuberculin test, (2) the privilege granted by
the Department of Agriculture to owners of herds to apply the Bang
method, and (3) the increased interest taken by cattle owners to protect
their herds and to weed out the diseased individuals. The last is
evidenced by the increased demand for tuberculin from the State Veterin-
ary College. In 1903, there were 3,867 doses called for by veterinarians
and the State Department of Agriculture; 7,605 doses in 1904; 7,985
doses in 1905; 13,038 doses in 1906; and 25,197 doses in 1907 were thus
distributed. With this widespread interest on the part of the farmers
themselves and a better knowledge of the nature of the disease and its
methods of control by the practicing veterinarians, there is every reason
to believe that the healthy herds wdll be better protected and that one

*The year book of the U. S. Department of Agricuhure for igoj gives New
York 1,826,211 milch cows and 944,734 other cattle.

128 Bulletin 250.

after another of the infected ones will be replaced with sound animals.
The goal toward which all are working is the eradication of bovine
tuberculosis as quickly as possible.

8. Necessity of field experiments for the study of animal diseases.

A careful review of our present knowledge of bovine tuberculosis
shows that, while we have many important facts concerning it, we still
need further information. This information can come only from actual
investigation on a considerable number of animals living under what
might be considered normal conditions. In order to know the best, or at
least the most economical, method of dealing with tuberculin-reacting
animals we need to have more knowledge concerning the recovery of the
slightly affected individuals and the conditions of the diseased processes
in the cases that fail to react on the second test. We have very definite
knowledge as to the means of dissemination and the channels of infection,
the course of the disease in the beginning and in the fatal cases, but much
additional knowledge of the -course of the disease in the arrested cases
that appear to recover is needed ; and much experimental knowledge must
be acquired concerning the best methods of handling such animals with
safety to themselves and to others. Vaccination or immunization of cattle
against tuberculosis is now being strongly advocated, but before our cattle
owners accept such recommendations they should be assured by carefully
conducted experiments that the methods are genuine and that the results
will be satisfactory.

The millions of dollars invested in cattle in New York State and the
importance of the cattle industry to the general welfare of the State,
demand that no effort should be spared to secure the most perfect knowl-
edge of tuberculosis and also of other infectious and communicable animal
diseases. From the very nature of the case this information cannot be
forthcoming without ample opportunities for investigation. We must
supplement the laboratory and stable work with actual field work on a
farm or farms that are devoted to these particular purposes.

Veranus a. Moore.

FEBRUARY. 1908 BULLETIN 251

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF
THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Plant Biology

PLANT -BREEDING

FOR FARMERS

- ^airiff'T^g-Ji^^A, -

^^*^«»^^pj«n^

|S^^\

Ir^ "^^

^

\\\

%

^\

By H. J. WEBBER

ITHACA, N. Y.

PUBLISPIED BY THE UNIVERSITY.
129

ORGANIZATION

Of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE agricultural COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.
FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University.
LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station.
EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.
JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.
HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

EXPERIMENTING STAFF

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.

RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry.

T. LYTTLETON LYON, Agronomy.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Plant Biology.

JOHN L. STONE, Farm Practice.

JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry.

BENJAMIN M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology.

MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.

GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.

ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation.

HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.

G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops.

W. A. STOCKING, Jr., Dairy Bacteriology.

LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.

CHARLES S. WILSON, Horticulture.

M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.

CHARLES F. CLARK, Plant Biology.

JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry.

CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology.

J. B. NORTON, Plant Biology.

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry.

P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in
New York State who request them.

130

PLANT-BREEDING FOR FARMERS

It is the writer's object in this bulletin to discuss those methods of
plant-breeding that are simple and suitable for the general use of farmers.
The rapidly accumulating evidence points every day more and more
strongly to the great practical importance of this subject. The experi-
menter may study and elucidate the methods of breeding and demon-
strate what can be accomplished ; the specialist may breed many new
types of value, but what is required to produce the greatest good is the
adoption of the methods of selection in the farm practice pursued by the
farmers generally. In the newspapers, the agricultural press and ex-
periment station bulletins we see considerable discussion of plant-breed-
ing, some of it unfortunately of rather sensational nature and possibly of
questionable value. \\'e might form the idea from this, that every-
thing possible is being done and that there is no chance for a farmer to
accomplish anything of value. Thi'^ would be a mistaken idea. The
workers in this field at the present time are just skimming the surface,
jumping from knoll to knoll on the mountain tops, while the fertile
valleys remain yet unexplored. Instead of a few specialists and scientific
men working here and there, the farmers the country over, should be
informed on the subject of breeding and introduce into their general farm
methods, systematic breeding in the production of their planting seed.
The evidence strongly indicates that to obtain the best yields of any croj)
the variety used should be adapted to the existing conditions. Adjoin-
ing farms frequently dififer markedly from each other in soil conditions
and a variety best suited to one may not be satisfactory on the other.
Variety-testing is thus an important part of the farm work and should
be followed by a careful selection of the seed in order to secure a high
yielding strain of the variety which will be suited to the local conditions.
For many years farmers have given careful attention to the methods
of seeding, cultivation, manuring, and the like, but have generally neg-
lected to give any careful attention to the methods of seed selection or
breeding. They have universally recognized the importance of stock-
breeding and on all dairy and stock farms more or less careful attention
has been given to the matter of breeding and improvement of the strain
grown. To every farmer the field of breeding, whether in plants or
animals, furnishes an interesting and profitable diversion. Plant-breed-
ing especially should become a farmer's fad. Few can afford to breed
animals in the extensive way necessary to secure important results,
owing to the expense. Xo farmer, however, is so poor but that he can
have his breeding patch of corn, wheat or potatoes. Indeed, if they but
knew it, they can ill afford not to have such a breeding patch to furnish
seed for their own planting.

131

I ^2 nur.LETIN 251.

Much regret has been expressed because our boys and girls become
dissatisfied with farm life and remove to the cities. This, the writer
believes, is largely due to lack of interest and apparent opportunity on
the farm. Get the boy interested in improving the field crops and the
girl interested in improving the garden vegetables, the orchard fruits and
the flowers, and the writer believes that much of this dissatisfaction
would be overcome. Have the boy develop an improved race of corn,
wheat, potatoes or some useful crop, keeping records of yields in com-
parison with ordinary sorts. Let him exhibit the product at the county
and state fairs, and sell the seed of the improved strain to his neighbors.
It will prove a profitable investment of time and money and give zest to
the farm work. Riley, the Indiana farmer who bred the Boone County
White Corn, was an ordinary farmer, not a scientific experimenter.
Yet his variety is grown extensively over a dozen of the great corn states
and has added thousands upon thousands of dollars to the valuation of
the corn crop of the world. Many of the standard varieties of our
ordinary crops have been bred by our farmers, and the time has come
when such services to humanity will be recognized and recorded in history
as are the noteworthy deeds of other great men in other fields of human
industry. At the present time probably no field of human activity
offers greater opportunity for advancement and reward than the field of
agriculture and when pursued with intelligence and energ}^, success is
almost certain.

I. Some of the Factors in Plant-Breeding.

If one is to use the most comprehensive methods of breeding, the
operations become very complex *and few farmers would have the time
to undertake the work on so extensive a scale. The writer has in most
cases described comparatively simple methods and in some cases has out-
lined more complex methods. No matter what breeding or seed-selection
the farmer is i)ursuing he should be familiar with the general principles
involved and an outline of the most fundamental principles, is thus
given.

The simple methods of seed-selection outlined under certain crops
treated, could hardly be considered breeding, but the methods are given
as they will lead to considerable improvement and are important to
follow where the farmer is not in position to follow more careful methods.

In the present bulletin no attention is given to the use of hybridiza-
tion in the origination of varieties, as this field of breeding is too complex
lo be i)ursucd successfully by farmers generally. In some future bulletin
the writer hopes to discuss this subject for the benefit of those who may
be interested in following breeding in a more specialized way.

Plant-Breeuixg for Farmers. 133

JVhat is meant by pcdigrcc-brccding.

In animal-breeding, it is generally understood that pedigree-breeding
means the breeding from registered parents and it is generally recognized
that wherever breeding of this kind is carried on it is done very carefully.
Pedigree-breeding has come to be almost synonymous with the use of care
in selection. The breeder who goes to the trouble and expense of
registering an animal, is certain to give very careful attention to the
characters of the animal, and to know that it is above the average, before
having it registered. Xo means has yet been devised of registering
plants in the sense in which such a practice is carried out in animals
and we, therefore, have no general breeding of plants under this system,
except in an experimental way. Ordinarily speaking very little care is
used in the selection of corn, wheat, potatoes, or other seed. Indeed, it
may be said that it is an exception to find farmers giving careful attention
to the methods of seed-preservation or selection. The most common
practice with corn, certainly until recent years and still very generally
used, was simply to select the best ears from the crib each spring to use
as planting seed, growers thinking they could judge of the germinability
of the corn by the appearance of the ears. With wheat and oats, no
selection is practiced generally other than possible to screen the seed
before planting, in order to separate the largest and heaviest kernels
from the smallest and lightest.

The practice of pedigree-breeding stimulates care in selection,
advertises the grower's stock, and has proven so successful in animal-
breeding that it has been adopted by breeders of all of the important
types of domesticated animals. The experiments of plant-breeders
have been carried far enough to demonstrate beyond doubt that any
strain or variety can be improved in yield and other qualities by careful
selection and pedigree-breeding. It would seem to the writer, therefore,
that the time has come when Xew York growers should adopt standard
methods of breeding for plants and provide some means of registration of
pedigree strains and new varieties and races. This would stimulate the
grower to careful work and furnish him the protection and stamp of
authority which is given by an official pedigree or certificate.

Difference hctzveen plant-breeding and animal-breeding.

For many years farmers have given special attention to animal-
breeding and are familiar with the methods there employed. It is thus
desirable that they clearly recognize such difiference as are of importance
between animal and plant-breeding. In animal-breeding the production
of new races or breeds is very rare. The ordinary breeding has as its
object, improvements with the race or breed, such as. increased size,

134 Bulletin 251.

greater milk production, improved beef quality, increased fecundity, 01
some such quality not changing the characters of the breed as a whole.

The plant-breeder ordinarily strives to produce new races or breeds,
differing from the known sorts in some important characters by which the
variety or race may be recognized. The new varieties or races of the
plant-breeder would correspond to the different breeds of animals.

The striving after markedly new varieties has led the plant-breeder
to largely overlook the advancement that may be wrought within the
variety by pedigree-breeding.

The plant-breeder can handle tlwusands where the animal-breeder
handles tens.

In careful pedigree-breeding, the animal-breeder follows both male
and female parents carefully selecting both. In the ordinary pedigree-
breeding in plants only the female parent is known and recorded,
although through planting the breeding stock in isolated fields, the male is
known to have come from a good mother parent. In some special cases
male and female are both followed in plants by practicing hand-pollina-
tion.

In general, therefore, in plants the female is most generally followed,
while in animals the male is, if anything, considered most important.
In animals many herds are greatly improved by simply introducing a
good male ; in plants many crops are greatly improved by simply select-
ing good females as seed producers.

What arc variationsf

The fact that we are able to improve plants by selection depends upon
the occurrence of variations. We are accustomed to think of plants as a
whole as very stable and uniform. As we casually look over a field of
Ox-eye daisies and admire their beauty, we distinguish no apparent
variability ; all seem to be alike. Nevertheless, if we examine the plants
carefully and study the different individuals we find that each one
possesses certain peculiarities. Some have large flower heads, others
small flower heads ; some have very many rays or petals, others compara-
tively few ; some have broad rays, others narrow rays. Some plants are
tall, others short. Some plants are many flowered, others few flowered,
and the like. No two plants can be found which do not differ from each
other in some noticeable character. They present dift'erent facial ex-
pressions, the same as do people or cattle, so that we may recognize
different individuals apart after we have studied them and made their
acquaintance. We are not accustomed to being introduced to Sam
Ox-eye, Jim Ox-eye and John Ox-eye and attempting to recognize their
characteristics so we will know them when next they call. This, how-
ever, is one of the interesting studies which the breeder pursues. Care-

Plant-Breeding for Farmers. 135

ful gardeners learn to recognize the individual plants which they handle
day after day the same as the shepherd recognizes the different members
of his flock. These ordinarily slight variations which are spoken of
commonly as individual variations are what the scientists now call con-
tinuous or fluctuating variations.

All of the individuals of any species, rase or variety, whether wild or
cultivated, show these individual variations. If we examine the different
seedling trees in nursery rows of maple or oak, or different corn or wheat
plants in fields of the same race, we will find them to present similar
individual variations. These variations are congenital, that is are born
with the individual, and are apparently not caused as a direct result of
of the environment. In many cases such variations are transmitted by a
plant to its progeny in the same manner that many of the individual
characters or characteristics of a human being are in part at least trans-
mitted to his progeny.

Such slight individual variations are the type of variation most used
by animal-breeders in selecting to improve the breed. In plant-breed-
ing such individual variations are also used when the breeder is selecting
to produce an improved strain of any race. If, for example, the breeder
desires to produce a heavy yielding strain of the Pride-of-the-Xorth corn,
he would select individuals having the maximum yield, plant these in
isolated places and continue the selection year after year, until a high
yielding strain of the variety had been produced. In such a selection the
scientist would assume that there had been no change produced in the
type of the race but that the breeder by the selection and isolation of the
maximum yielding individuals had produced a family, within the race, of
high yielding capacity, this being maintained continually by the selec-
tion. If, however, the selection and isolation of the highest yielding
plants was discontinued and free intercrossing with inferior individuals
was allowed, the mean yielding capacity of the race as a whole would
soon be established again.

A second type of variation is that known to gardeners and horti-
culturists as sports and to the scientists as mutations. These are large
pattern, striking variations which do not occur very commonly, but
which, when found, are likely to prove useful in the production of new
types of value. The recent scientific studies of De \^ries. a famous
botanist of Holland, have emphasized the great importance of such
variations in the production of cultivated varieties and the evolution of
species. As is well known to gardeners these sports or mutations, appear
suddenly without warning or reason so far as we know. We cannot pro-
duce them and must simply wait until they appear and then be prepared
to recognize and propagate them. Mutations usually reproduce their
characters without much reversion to the parental type except such as is

136 Bulletin 251.

caused by cross-pollination. Mutations of self-fertilized plants thus
usually come true to type, while in cross-fertilized plants the mutation
must usually be cultivated in an isolated place and carefully selected
to weed out the effect of such crossing as has occurred. Many seedsmen
examine their trial grounds regularly for the sports or mutations and
many of our best varieties have resulted from the selection of such
sports. Livingston, of Ohio, who during his life was famous for the
number of new varieties of tomatoes which he produced, made it a prac-
tice to regularly search the fields of tomatoes which he grew for seed
purposes, for such sports and almost all of his numerous varieties were
produced by the discovery of such striking variations.

From what has been said above it will be seen that fluctuating
variations are of value mainly in the production of improved strains of a
race which differ only in such characters as high yielding capacity, which
are soon lost when the selection is discontinued. Mutations or sports on
the contrary are of value in the production of distinctly new races and
varieties which maintain their new characters without continued selec-
tion.

Aside from the above types of variations we have another type
usually known as physiological variation which is the direct reaction of
the plant to a certain environment. A simple illustration of such a varia-
tion is the difference in size due to growth on sterile and rich soil. Such
variations are not ordinarily inherited and are not known to be of any
value to the plant-breeder.

Another kind of variation, probably of little value to the breeder of
annual plants and about which we as yet know very little, is the
so-called bud variations, sports or bud mutations. Chrysanthemum
and rose growers know that it is not a very uncommon thing for a plant
to produce a branch which will be entirely different from the remaining
portion of the plant. Valuable new varieties of roses, chrysanthemums,
carnations and some other flowers and fruits have been secured by the
selection and propagation of such bud variations. They seem in a large
measure to be comparable to mutations except that they originate in a
bud change instead of a change occurring in the sexual reproduction. It
is probable that they will ultimately be found to be due to similar
causes, being produced in the same way.

Tlic forcing of variations.

Little is known as yet as to how far we can go in forcing the varia-
tions of various types, other than through the hybridization of different
strains, varieties and species. The evidence now at command, indicates
that plants become more variable as they are highly fed and are manip-
ulated in various artificial ways, such as, budding, grafting and vegeta-

Plant-Breeding for Farmers. 137

tive propagation in general. A change of environment may cause appar-
ently stable races to break up and vary considerably, especially when such
races are of hybrid origin or are highly bred sorts. A radical change of
environment may, therefore, in some cases lead a plant to break up and
produce certain variations that we desire.

The recent investigations of Dr. MacDougal indicate that we may be
able to induce or stimulate a plant to produce mutations or sports through
the injection into it at certain periods, of chemical salts. This, however,
is at present a field of experimentation for the scientist rather than
for the practical breeder.

One of the mo>t fruitful ways of causing variation is by hybridization,
but owing to the complexity of breeding work of this kind it will not be
discussed in this paper.

Principles of selection.

The keynote of improvement by selection is the choice of the very
best individuals. The discovery of the best individual in any crop under
consideration, requires the growing of a large number of individuals under
as uniform conditions as possible, so that the experimenter may have op-
portunity to examine and select the best. Two methods of growing plants
for selection are in general use which may be termed i, the Nursery
method and 2, the Field method.

The Nursery method, which so far as the writer is informed was first
used by Hallett about 1868, consists in cultivating each plant under the
most favorable conditions possible for its best development. By this
method with wheat, for instance, Hallett pursued the policy of planting
the individuals in squares a foot apart, which would give each plant
abundant opportunity for stooling, and also the investigator an oppor-
tunity to clearly distinguish each individual plant and determine its
characteristics, total yield, and the like. In recent years this method of
growing the individual plants at a standard distance from each other in
order to test their yielding capacities, and the like, has been used by
Professor Hays in his experiments at the Minnesota Station. Here,
however, a standard distance of four inches apart was used instead of one
foot.

The Field method was used by Rimpau about 1867, and probably by
many others before that time. By this method, the selections are made
from plants grown under normal field conditions. The claims for this
methofl is that we can only judge what a plant will do in the field under
ordinary conditions of field culture, by growing and selecting it under
these conditions. In the large majority of cases the first selections are
probably made from plants grown in the field in the regular course of
crop production, which thus were not specially grown for the purpose.

138 Bulletin 251.

If one is to use the Nursery method, the plants must be especially
planted. While the nursery method certainly allows the breeder to distin-
guish the individual plants more clearly, in crops like wheat, oats, and so
on, which are sown broadcast or drilled, it entails very much extra work
and is probably to be recommended only for the use of experimenters
who are giving their entire time to the work.

In selecting the best plants in any crop the breeder must aim to examine
a very large number of plants and carefully compare their important
characters. To know what the important characters are, it is neces-
sary to be familiar with the crop and have a thorough knowledge
of those qualities wdiich go to make up a plant of the greatest intrinsic
value. In some cases breeders have given primary attention to some
quality which is largely secondary in nature. Corn-breeders, as an
illustration, have given great attention to getting ears well filled out over
the tip. This character is of no value except to produce a good ear for
exhibit and would be of no value there if the ordinary score card did not
require it. Such a character is of no value, unless it is correlated with
heavy yield, and the writer knows of no evidence to show that this is the
case. What the corn-breeder desires is the variety that will give the
largest yield per acre of good grain. If this variety happens to bear ears
well filled over the tip, well and good. The filling of the tip is not a
detrimental character. If, however, this heavy yielding capacity is found
in a variety in which the tip of the ear is not so well filled it does not
materially matter, as this in general is not a detrimental character.

In making the first selections it is usually the best policy to make a
preliminary selection of a much larger number of plants than are actually
desired. The breeder can then examine these selections with greater care
and discard the poorest from among them retaining only the superior
individuals.

Careful breeders have found it very desirable to have a clearly defined
ideal type which they are striving to produce. In selections within the
race the breeder should have all of the characters of the race which he
is breeding clearly in mind in order to adhere strictly to the type of the
variety ■ in the selections. In making selections of new variations,
mutations, etc., in attempting to secure new races, naturally no one type
can be adhered to. In testing these different individuals, however, the
characters of a certain type should be borne in mind and deviations from
this type in the progeny should be weeded out.

The individual the unit of breeding.

The unity of the individuals is also an important factor in plant-breed-
ing. If, for instance, one is attempting to produce a seedless fruit, it is
important that he discover a plant which shows a tendency to produce

Plaxt-15reeding for Farmers. 139

seedlessness throughout the entire individual. It would not be the correct
policy for a breeder to select simply a single fruit which might
accidentally be nearly seedless. He should examine a large number of
fruits of different individual plants, and find a plant on which he can dis-
cover a general tendency toward seedlessness, showing in all of the fruits
produced. By selecting seed from such individuals he may be able to
find in time one such individual that would transmit to its progeny this
tendency to produce few seeds.

While this is certainly generally true, there are some instances in which
further divisions of the individual are important. As an illustration may
be mentioned the case of color in corn kernels. Where one is dealing with
hybrids of corn of different color it is well known that the kernels on the
same ear may vary in color, and if the investigator is attempting to produce
a certain color he should select to plant only those kernels that have the
color which it is desired to produce in the new strain.

In head selection of wheat and oats made in the field as described in
another part of this bulletin, one is in a sense basing the selection of an
individual on the examination of one part. However, this head selection
should be accompanied by an examination of the plant to some extent
and even if this is not done the planting of each head in a test row by itself
to determine comparative yield, gives a measure of the productivity of the
original plant from which the head was taken and this after all is the im-
portant point.

Again in clonal-breeding^, the unit used is any part or portion of the
plant that shows a desired variation. In potatoes where the hill method
of selection is used the unit would be the tuber producing the hill, and the
yield of the hill would be the measure of the productivity of the bud that
produced the tuber. In breeding carnations, violets, pineapples, and
the like, by the selection of cuttings or slips, the plant grown from the
slip or cutting becomes the unit representing the productivity of the bud
which produced the slip.

Test of transmitting power.

A factor of primary importance in all pedigree or grade-breeding is the
testing of what is termed the transmitting or centgener power. It is neces-
sary for us to know that a certain plant, which for instance, gives a
heavy yield, has the faculty of transmitting this tendency of producing
heavy yield to its progeny. It is frequently found that two select
plants which are equally good so far as their yield is concerned will give
progeny which, as a whole, differ greatly in this respect. In the progeny
of one almost every plant may have inherited the quality, while in the

1 Clonal-breeding,— breeding by the selection of vegetative parts, buds, scions,
tubers, bulbs, slips, etc.

140 Bulletin 251.

progeny of the other only a few of the plants may show in any noticeable
degree the inheritance of the (juality. To determine this prepotency or
transmitting power, it is necessary to carefully grade the progeny of each
individual, and this is the primary reason for planting the progeny of
difTf.erent individuals in separate rows or separate plots, so that they may
be easily examined. It would seem to be an easy matter when we plant
the progeny of different plants in rows or small plots by themselves to
get the comparative yield, for instance, of 100 plants, and from this
figure up the average per cent of the transmitting, or centgener power.
This matter, however, is very difficult in many cases. In corn, for
instance, certain individuals may stcol and form suckers that have
fairly good sized ears. If the corn is planted thin enough on the ground,
these suckers would tend to increase the yield, and render the proper
judgment of the transmitting power very difficult. It would seem at
first thought that such suckering, if it increased the yield would be de-
sirable, and should be considered a favorable character in connection with
an individual. However, if the soil is heavy enough to have allowed
this suckering to give increased yield, it would have been possible on
the same soil to have placed the plants closer, and as seed is of little
comparative value, it would be best to have a non-suckering type, and
plant the corn as closely as the soil would properly permit. Again, it is
almost impossible to get perfect stands, and a change in the stand may
affect the yield. A^ery many difficulties and problems enter into the figuring
out of this transmitting power, and it is obviously impossible to give
directions for all cases. The breeder must study conditions and carefully
determine what policy to pursue in each case.

Control of /parentage.

In plant-breeding, as in animal breeding, the isolation of the parents
is a very important consideration. It is necessary that we should know
the character of both i)arents wherever this is possible. In breeding
plants more attention is ordinarily given to the mother plant, and
in very many instances the characters of the father plant are entirely
neglected. Animal-breeders, on the contrary, give more attention to
the characters of the male parent, and a great deal of iiuprovement in
ordinary herds is accomplished by the introduction of improved blood
through the male. In ])lant-breeding it is desirable that the seed of the
select individuals be planted in a field by themselves. This insures that
only progeny of carefully selected plants will be planted near together,
and thus no ordinary stock will enter in as a contamination. One can
be certain that each ])lant of the progeny is fertilized with pollen from
another similarly good plant, or at least from a plant derived from good
parentage. One difficulty, however, has been experienced by plant-

Plant-Breeding for Farmers. 141

breeders in the case of plants which normally cross-fertilize, in planting
continuously their selected stock in such isolated plots. If this method
is continued year after year, it results in fairly close inbreeding, which in
the case of plants frequently results in loss of vitality and vigor. In
animal-breeding it is apparently the case that ordinarily with careful
selection, there is no noticeable effect from close inbreeding, and many
of the most famous animals have been produced as a result of the closest
in-and-inbreeding. In plants, however, it is possible to secure much closer
inbreeding than in the case of animals, as in many cases a plant can be
fertilized with its own pollen.

Within recent years much activity has been developed in the careful
breeding and improvement of corn. The corn plant has been shown, as
a result of experiments carried on by various investigators, as, for
instance, the Illinois Experiment Station and by the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, to lose vitality very rapidly when self-fertilized. Within
three or four generations by careful self-fertilization it is possible to pro-
duce a strain of corn of almost total sterility. The general practice of
corn-breeders who have been giving attention to the production of
highly bred strains is to plant the rows of corn from different select ears
side by side, giving a row to each select ear, and each year selecting
from the progeny of those rows which give the largest yield, further
plants to continue the selection. Planting these select ears together
every year, therefore, means that they are more or less inbred as the
closest relatives are planted together in the same row. While in follow-
ing this policy at first no effect was visible, corn-breeders are now find-
ing in some cases an apparent decrease in yield, which seems to be
traceable to the eft'ect of inbreeding. It, therefore, seems necessary for
us here and in other plants that are eft'ected by inbreeding to devise
some methods that will avoid close inbreeding, Alethods for the use
of corn-breeders will be described later in this bulletin. The detri-
mental eft'ect of inbreeding is largely limited to those plants which
are normally cross, fertilized, this fact being strikingly brought out in
Darwin's famous "Investigations on Cross- and Self-fertilization in the
Vegetable Kingdom."' Tobacco, wheat, and some other plants which are
normally self-fertilized do not show this decrease in vigor as a result of
inbreeding. Indeed, in such plants, cross-fertilization ordinarily results in
decreased vigor and should be avoided.

Obviously in the case of clonal-breeding, such as the improvement of
potatoes by hill selection, the isolation of the breeding stock does not have
to be considered and the breeding and increase patches can be planted with
the general crops if so desired.

142 Bulletin 251.

Numbering the selections and keeping records.

In practical work, it is necessary to limit note-taking and records to
the minimum as it is easy to spend so much time in making records,
that no time remains for the more necessary work. It is, however, neces-
sary to follow the individuals in each generation sufficiently so that one can
trace back the parentage and compare the results of different years in
order to determine which strain or family has proven the best. A simple
way to do this is the following :

Suppose we are making selections of Leaming corn and that the
breeder has carefully examined a good field of Leaming and selected
fifty superior plants. When these plants are harvested they can be
numbered in sequence i, 2, 3, etc., up to fifty. The seed of each plant
should be preserved separately and the number assigned to each plant
placed on the packet containing the seed. In a special record book ob-
tained for this purpose, records can be made on the individuals selected
under the numbers assigned to them, and under the general head-
ing of 7907 Selections, or any particular year in which the selections
are made. The next year in practically all breeding the seed from
each plant requires to be planted separately by the plant-to-row
method, to test the transmitting power of the individual. These rows
from the various individuals should be labeled in accordance with the
numbers assigned to the selections, i, 2, 3, etc., to 50. When the selec-
tions of the second generation are made from these rows, label those
from row I as follows: i-i, 1-2, 1-3, etc., those from row 2, label, 2-1,
2-2. 2-3. etc., those from row 50, label, 50-1, 50-2, etc. Make notes on
the selections under these numbers and under the heading of IQ08 Selec-
tions. It is important also to carefully examine each row and determine
how the characters for which the plant was selected have been transmit-
ted. Ordinarily, the record of yield of the progeny is the most import-
ant factor to record.

In the third year, the selections made from row i-i of the second
year selections would be labeled i-i-i, 1-1-2, 1-1-3, etc.; those from
row 2-1 would be labeled, 2-1-T, 2-1-2. 2-1-3, etc. In later generations,
the same system can 1)C followed, separating the different years by a dash.
It will be seen that after tlie first year the system consists of num-
bering the selections made from any nnv i, 2, 3, and upward, and
placing before it the number of the row with a dash separating them.
By examining this system it will be seen that these numbers show at a
glance the number of the generations through which the selection was
continued, and also connects each generation with the preceding genera-
tions, so diat the record of any selection can be traced back through the
• entire time the selection has been c^ntitmcd.

Plant-Breeding for Farmers. 143

Should the selection be continued longer than about six years these
numbers will become cumbersome and in this case new numbers can be
given to all selections made in any year, numbering them again i, 2, 3,
and upward. Under each of these a reccrd can be made of the row from
which it was taken, which will connect it with the preceding records ; thus,
No. I (from row 2-1-3-5-2-4) etc.

With reference to keeping the notes the following is a suggestion of ar-
rangement through three years :

igoj Selections.
Leaming corn

No. I (followed by notes on individual)
No. 2 ( " " "■ " "■ )

No. 3 ( " " " " '•' )

etc.

ipo8 Selections.
Leaming corn

I (Followed by progeny notes)

No. i-i ( Followed by notes on individual)
No. 1-2 { Followed by notes on individual)
No. 1-3 (Followed by notes on individual)
etc.

Row 2 (Followed by progeny notes)

No. 2-1 (Followed by notes on individual)
No. 2-2 (Followed by notes on individual)
No. 2-3 (Followed by notes on individual)
etc.

ipop Selections.
Leaming corn

Row i-i (Followed by progeny notes)

No. I-I -I (Followed by notes on individual)
No. 1-1-2 (Followed by notes on individual)
No. 1-1-3 (Followed by notes on individual)
etc.

Row 1-2 (Followed by progeny notes)

No. 1-2-1 (Followed by notes on individual)
No. 1-2-2 (Followed by notes on individual)
No. 1-2-3 (Followed by notes on individual)
etc.

144 Bulletin 251.

Row 1-3 (Followed by progeny notes)

No. 1-3-1 ( Followed by notes on individual)
No. 1-3-2 (Followed by notes on individual)
No. 1-3-3 (Followed by notes on individual)
etc.

Row 2-1 (Followed by progeny notes)

NO; 2-1-1 (Followed by notes on individual)
No. 2-1-2 (Followed by notes on individual)
No. 2-1-3 ( Followed by notes on individual)
etc.

II. CORN.

While corn is extensively grown in New York and is one of our most
important agricultural crops, as a whole it seems to the writer that it is a
much neglected crop. It is grown largely for ensilage purposes, but
only to a limited extent for the grain. New York produces an abundance
of hay and roughage but has a shortage of concentrates. If more at-
tention was given to the improvement of corn it is probable that its culti-
vation for grain would become more general. We greatly need
earlier dent varieties of higher yielding capacity. In the majority of
cases where corn is grown for the grain, flint varieties are yet used, al-
though dent varieties are in general higher yielders. When corn is grown
for ensilage the seed is quite generally obtained from Ohio, Illinois, or
some of the western corn states, when it is probable that by careful
breeding we could produce local strains that would give just as good or
better yields and which would have the additional advantage that the seed
could be produced here with safety. The writer is well aware that
many corn growers would claim this to be improbable or at least, im-
practical, as they believe that the growth of the seed in a more southern
location gives the jjlants a tendency to grow large and rank, a character
which they believe would be lost if the variety were grown continuously
in tlie north. The writer, while admitting that the general tendency for
a variety grown in northern localities where the season is of limited
duration, is to become smaller, nevertheless, believes that by the proper
breeding, varieties could be produced which would ripen seed safety and
because of their better adaptibility give even better results for ensilage
purposes. Corn which matures sufficiently for good ensilage has reached
a stage when the ears, if properly preserved, will give seed that will grow
well. A reduction of a week in the season of such a variety would prob-
ably render it sufficiently early so that mature seed could be selected.

Corn is a crop particularly well adapted to breeding as the selection
of sufficient seed to plant a comparatively large area does not entail
very much work. The breeding, however is complicated by the fact

Plant- IjKeedixg for Farmers.

145

that corn is normally cross-fertilized and the breeding plot thus requires
to be isolated to prevent the injury of the select strain by crossing with
inferior plants.

Corn-breeding has received very much attention from breeders in
recent years and several very complex methods have been devised for
conducting systematic work in improvement by selection. These
methods are rendered complex by the necessity of arranging the selected
individuals in such a way as to 'avoid self-fertilization and too close
inbreeding, and the consequent loss of vigor. The three methods most
generally used are those suggested by Dr. C. G. Hopkins and his asso-
ciates of the Illinois Sta-
tion, by Professor C. G.
Williams of the Ohio
Station, and by C. P.
Hartley of the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.
These methods are all
rather complex for use
in general, but when
once understood and in
actual operation, their
complexity disappears in
a measure. This, at least,
is the testimony of farm-
ers who have been actu-
allly engaged in the work
and put the methods in-
to operation, and the
writer can see no reason w^hy many farmers should not adopt some one of
these methods for their use. The method devised by Mr. Hartley is
probably the simplest method that takes into account the prevention of
too close inbreeding and is thus believed by the writer to be the best
method thus far devised for the general use of farmers. This is, therefore,
the only method described in this bulletin. If the farmer becomes a
special corn-breeder and wishes to conduct his work in the most scientific
way he should study the methods used by Professor Williams and Dr.
Hopkins.

Soiuc important characters of corn.

Probably the most important character to be considered in connec-
tion with corn-breeding in New York is the production of earlier
strains of good yieMing capacity. This is particularly true in the
case of dent varieties, the growth of which should be encouraged.

hiG. 135. — IVcU-shapcd cylindrical ears of corn.

146

Bulletin 251.

The best corn variety for any section is that sort which ripens sufficiently
early to mature its crops before freezes are liable to occur, and gives
the best yield of good grain. A variety, however, should be late enough
to utilize the entire growing season available in the locality. Every
variety of corn which the writer has examined shows considerable
variability in the season of the different individuals and it is clearly
possible to shorten or lengthen the season of any given variety. The

stalk should be vigorous.
])roductive ai:d leafy. If
early enough for Xew York
conditions it is not likely
to be too high as some-
times occurs farther south.
Ordinari!)- a stalk which
does not produce suckers
is considered the most de-
sirable. It is also import-
ant that healthy stalks free
from smut or rust, either
on leaves, ears, or tassels
should be selected. A good
ear of corn in general should
be cylindrical in shape and
of about the same diameter
from base to tip (Fig. 135).
It is very easy to find ears
too long and slender to
give the best results. The
car giving die largest weight
of shelled corn of good
(|ualily and grade is in gen-
eral the best ear. The ears
which give diis ordinarily have deep kernels set on a medium sized cob
and are generally well filled at the tip and butt (I'igs. 136 and 137).
Length ni kernel is one r.f the most important characters, as almost
always, if not invariably, high yielding varieties have long kernel;. The
best f( rm of kernel is wedge-shaped with straight sides and edges. This
allows them to occupy all the space on the cob and form a solid heavy
ear ( Figs. 138 and 139). They should not be chaffy nor have prolonged
chaffy caps.

It has been shown by the experiments of Dr. Hopkins and his
associates in the Illinois Fxperimcnt Station tliat it is possible to in-
crease the nitrogen, oil, or starch content of corn by careful selec-

Fif.. i;ifK— Kernels short and undesirable on
left-hand ear; kernels long, and 7cell-shaped
on right-hand ear. Pride of North corn.

Plant-Breeding for Farmers.

147

tion but it is not the intention of the writer to urge this as a desirable
Hne of breeding work for the ordinary farmer to undertake at the pres-
ent time. In general, however, a breeder should understand that those
ears on which the kernels by cutting show a considerable portion of
hard, horny or hyaline matter, are rich in nitrogen. The kernels on
some ears have a large quantity of rather soft, opaque, white matter
and those are rich in
starch but poor in ni-
trogen. As ears with
higher nitrogen con-
tent are what we de-
sire, ears with a large
proportion of white
starchy matter should
not be used in propa-
gation.

With reference to
the number of ears
per stalk which will
give the best results,
no very definite state-
ments can be made.
One good ear per stalk
would give us high
yields, however, and
the writer is strongly
inclined to the opin-
ion that with dent
varieties in this rather
northern region a
single ear to the stalk
will prove in general
the most satisfactory.

If the breeder selects large ears, in general he will be breeding
toward a one ear per stalk type as the ears on one eared stalks will
naturally be the largest. The writer believes that growers in general
know a good stalk and a good ear of corn but in determining the yield of
shelled corn per ear it will be bstter ordinarily to weigh the product as
it is well in all cases to use exact methods where possible rather than trust
to judgment.

Choosing tlic zvricty with z^'hich to begin.

The choice of the varietv or kind of corn with which to begin
the breeding work is an impjrtani part of the process. What has

Fig. 137. — Poor tify and good tit', Pride of
North corn.

148

Bulletin 251.

been said above applies to dent varieties which in general are the high-
est yielders, but which recjuire a rather longer season in which to mature.
There are several varieties and strains of dent corn which are grown
locally in different parts of New York for seed and satisfactory dent varie-
ties for all of the corn-growing sections of the State can doubtless be
produced. The breeder should above all start with a strain which he
knows to be a high yielding type. If he knows of no such type which is
fairly well suited to his section he should probably obtain seed of several
varieties which appear promising, and test their yield on his farm. He
may find it desirable to consult the Experiment Station regarding varieties
and such information as possible will be freely given. It may be stated
that in general, Pride-of-the-North or some selected strain of this variety,
such as Minnesota No. 13, appears to be one of the most promising dent

Fig. 138. — .4, Kerne! of proper shape.
/>', Round kernel. C, Square kernel,
From " Exa)nining and Grading
Grains."

Fig. 139. — A. Kernels fitting closely
from crown to tip. B, Kernels
pointed on narrozv side. From "Ex-
aming and Grading Grains."

varieties for the State (Fig. 140). The writer's experience, however, is
not yet sufficiently extensive so that he can recommend this variety to the
exclusion of others and it is very probable that no single variety can ever
be found which will prove to be superior in all sections of the State. If
the grower is cultivating a strain which has given him satisfactory results
it would be a good sort to breed regardless of whether or not it is a known
variety.

The sort which the grower is going to use in his breeding having been
decided upon a field should be planted with the best available seed. If a
large (juantity of this corn is available the best possible ears should be
selected for planting seed and these planted by the ear-to-row method
used in planting the breeding plot as described below. A field of several
acres should be planted in order to furnish sufficient plants so that a good
selection can be made. This should be placed in a field where the soil is
as uniform as is possible to obtain.

Making the first selection of corn.

When the corn begins to rij^en the work of selection should begin.
In this State where carliness is so important the selections should be made
when the earliest stalks ripen and begin to dry. At this time the grower
can judge the degree of carliness quite accurately, and can limit his

Plaxt-Breklixg fur Farmers.

149

selections to the earliest plants. The field should be gone over slowly
and carefully, row by row, and the b:st productive early plants marked
for seed. The grower should select an ideal type so far as the variety he
is selecting is concerned and adhere as near as possible to this type.
The aim should be to select a hundred or more of the best ears from the
earliest and most desirable stalks. Always select about twice as many
ears as desired so that some of them may be discarded when examined in
detail later. \\dicn the plants have been selected the ears should be
husked and taken into a dry room for preservation or the stalks should be
cut and placed in a dry room where they will dry quickly and without
injury from freezing. If the ears are pretty thoroughly ripened the best
policy is doubtless to husk them immediately and if rather immature

Fig. 140. — Typical ears, Pride of North corn. Crop of 1907, Ke'w York.

when selected and there is danger of freezes it may be well to cut the
stalks and allow them to dry and ripen on the stalks by placing these in a
sheltered, warm place. In general seed corn should be dried quickly
and thoroughly and to do this the ears should be hung over wires in a
warm room or placed loosely on open shelves where the air can circulate
freely around them. If a stove can be placed in the seed room it is desir-
able to use some artificial heat.

In the winter when there is no rush of farm work to interrupt, place
the seed ears selected in rows on a table with the tips of the ears pointing
in the same direction. Then examine every ear critically as to type,
shape, depth of kernel, and other desirable characters. A few kernels
taken out from near the tip, butt and middle of any ear will show the
general character of that ear. If the kernels of any ear are too short or

150 Bulletin 251,

defective in any other character the ear should be discarded. Select
out 50 or 100 of the best ears and preserve these to plant a breeding
patch the next year. These should l)e shelled by hand. First shell
off the poorly formed tip and basal kernels which should be discarded.
Then shell the remaining portion of each ear and place the seed of each
in a separate paper bag. Number each ear in accordance with the
system described in early part of this paper (page 142) and carefully label
the seed and record under this number the length, diameter and weight
of ear, weight of shelled corn and any other notes which you may de-
sire to retain. Typical ears of each generation should also be retained
for comparison. The discarded ears should be shelled and retained
as planting seed for the general crop.

Planting the corn breeding-plot in second year.

The breeding-plot should be located on a uniform piece of land of good
quality but representative of the land of the region. It should not be
especially manured or cultivated but given ordinary good care and
ordinary manuring. The seed from the various selected ears should be
planted b\- the ear-to-row method, the seed from one ear being placed in
one row, etc. The rows should be planted at right angles to the dead
furrows and back furrows, and if on a side hill the rows should be planted
so that each has the same proportion of high and low land so far as
possible. The rows in this year may be planted in order of number. It
mu-t l)c remembered that corn is regularly cross-fertilized and the
breeding patch must be located at some distance from any other corn
field preferably at least a thousand feet distant. It might be planted in
the corner of a field of the same variety if no other place is available, but
this is undesirable for then many ears of the breeding patch will be pol-
linated with pollen from unselected individuals. If such a location
must be used the ears that were discarded after the last careful examina-
tion should be planted around the edges of the breeding patch between it
and the other corn. It is far better to have an isolated plot for the
breeding-field, however, and this should be arranged if possible.

It is desirable to have all rows of the breeding-plot of equal length and
containing the same number of liills and same number of stalks per hill.
It is a common practice to plant about 100 hills from each ear. It is
also desirable to have one or two border rows all around the plot to
make the conditions of all hills uniform. These border rows can be
planted with the seed left over after planting the selection rows.

The planting can be done b}- hand or with a hand-planter. In the
latter case Ihc ])lanter must be carefully cleaned after planting each
row. It is also well to dro]) the corn thicker than desired so that it can
be thinned to a uniform stand when well up and about six inches high.

Plaxt-Breeding for Farmers. 151

Detasseliiig to prevent self-pollination.

It has been proven by careful experimentation that corn is reduced
markedly in vigor and production as a result of inbreeding and self-
fertilization. Planting by the ear-to-row method gives opportunity
for considerable inbreeding and self-fertilization and to avoid this it is
necessary to detassel certain portions of the breeding-patch from which
seed is to be taken. The simplest method of accomplishing this is to
detassel one half of each row. In order that this may not interfere with
proper pollination each row is detasseled from one end to the middle
alternating ends of adjoining rows being detasseled as illustrated
below, the dotted line indicating the portion of each row detasseled.

Row I

Row 2

Row 3

Row 4

It will be seen from an examination of this method that the seed
formed on the detasseled portions of each row will all of it have been
cross-fertilized with individuals from another select row which in this
first generation is probably quite distantly related.

The process of detasseling is accomplished by pulling out the tassels
before they begin to discharge pollen which will entirely prevent self--
fertilization. In order to do this work thoroughly the field must be gone
over every two or three days at the time of tasseling. An examination
of all the rows should be made at this time and if any rows are found to
show weakness or undesirable characters they should be detasseled
throughout so that they will not afifect the remaining rows by crossing with
them.

Making selections from the breeding-plot of corn.

After detasseling nothing remains to be done until the stalks begin to
ripen and the ears to dry. At this time the number of stalks in each row
should be counted and recorded. If border rows have been planted these
of course should be excluded from the count. It now remains to select
the best plants from this patch. The field should be gone over with the
ideal type well in mind and the best plants marked. All of these should
be taken from the detasseled portions of the different rows. As in
making the selections the first year about twice or three times as many
ears should be taken as are finally desired. These should be taken from
the most productive rows so far as can be determined at this time. It is
necessary to take seed from all of the apparently good rows as it is im-
possible to tell which are the best rows until the product from the dif-
ferent rows is measured and weighed. The select ears from each row
should be kept together under the row number and spread out to dry in a
warm, well ventilated room.

152 * BULLETIX 251.

Dcfcnuiiiatioii of the most productizr roivs.

As soon as the corn is ripe enough to harvest, the different rows should
be harvested separately and the product carefully weighed. The ears
which have been previously selected from each row should also be weighed
and the total product of each row determined. Having now the total
product of each row and the number of stalks per row, the average yield
per stalk can be determined by dividing the yield per row by the number
of stalks that grew in the row. In rows which have nearly a perfect
stand this gives a fairly reliable estimate of the comparative yield. If the
stand of certain rows is much broken they will have to be thrown out of
the calculation. If all of the rows are much broken in stand, no reliable
data can be obtained as to the comparative yield and the breeder will
have to depend on his judgment.

The average row production is a test of the transmitting power of the
ears selected in the first generation and the heavy yielding rows are thus
the ones from which the selections for the further breeding should be
taken. At some convenient time the selections made from the breeding-
plot sliould be laid out on tables and carefully examined. Those which
are taken from rows which were found to be low yielders should be dis-
carded.

All of tlie selections finally retained should be from the ten or twelve
highest yielding rows. Examine all of the ears in detail and finally
retain about the same number as were selected the first year. These
sliould then l)e numbered with the row number and individual selection
number in accordance with the system previously outlined (p. 142) and
notes recorded similar to those made on the first generation ears. The
progeny or row yields should also be recorded. The ears after shell-
ing off the poor kernels at apex and butt can be shelled and preserved
in separate sacks ready for planting the breeding-plot the next year.

•It is a good policy after selecting all of the ears for planting to retain
a number of tlic second select ears as a safeguard against any accidental
loss of those planted and also to serve as types of the selection.

The selection of the ' ears from the breeding-patch is continued each
succeeding year as above outlined so that the method is one of continuous
connected breeding and should supply seed of a gradually increasing
efficiency.

The mnUipUcation-plot of corn.

In order to obtain seed from the highly bred stock for planting the
general crop it is necessary to plant a multiplication or increase-plot.
To i^lant this plot take for seed the best remaining ears from the de-
tasseled portion of the highest yielding rows after the select breeding

Plaxi-L5keki;ixg for Farmers. 153

ears have been removed. The muItipHcation-plot should be isolated
from all other corn in order to prevent deterioration by crossing with
inferior strains. When the multiplication-plot is husked the best ears
should be selected out by some convenient method and preserved as seed
to plant the general crop. The multiplication-plot is not grown for
purposes of breeding but simply to multiply the available seed of the im-
proved variety from the breeding-plot. The breeding-plot will each
year supply seed of an increasing degree of efficiency for planting the
multiplication-plot and this in turn will each year supply more and more
highl}' bred seed for the general crop. ,

Planting flic breeding-plot in third year.
In the third and succeeding years some care should be taken in the
arrangement of the rows planted from the dififerent select ears to get
rows from unrelated ears together. If for instance Row i was a high
yielder in the breeding-patch of the second year we would probably have
a number of select ears from this row and these ears would be numbered
i-i, 1-2, 1-3, etc. It would be well to arrange the breeding-patch in the
third year in such a way that the rows planted from these ears are not
side by side as they are from the same mother plant in the first genera-
tion of the selection and are thus closely related.

General eonsideration in respect to corn.

It will be seen that the above method of corn selection forms a con-
tinuous system which can be pursued year after year. If the method is
followed carefully seed of a gradually increasing degree of yield efficiency
and purity should be produced. The method of selection advocated
has in the work conducted by the U. S. Department of Agriculture
given excellent results and if carried out with intelligence and care can
hardly fail to give marked improvement.

The careful selection of good ears at the time of husking, which are
dried (juickly and preserved properly is important where no plan of
breeding is followed. The writer would urge farmers in general to give
more attention to the improvement of their seed corn.

III. WHEAT IMPRO\'EAIEXT.

The extensive experience of wheat-breeders in various parts of the
world have demonstrated beyond question that we can greatly improve
our varieties by careful breeding. The most careful experiments in the
breeding of wheat which have been carried out in this country, were con-
ducted by Hon. W. M. Hays, now Assistant Secretary oi Agriculture,
while he was connected with the Minnesota Experiment Station. One of

1^4 Bulletin 251.

the best of his selections, Minnesota No. 169, from a selected mother plant
of Haynes' Blue Stem, cultivated for four years (1895-98) at the Minne-
sota University farm, and in 1898 at Grand Rapids, Minnesota, and at
the Agricultural Experiment Stations in Iowa, South Dakota, and North
Dakota, gave an average yield of 24.7 bushels per acre as compared with
an average yield of 21.9 bushels per acre by the parent sort, Haynes'
Blue Stem, cultivated the same years at the same stations. This is an
average increased yield of 2.8 bushels per acre under a very wide di-
versity of conditions. The average increase it should further bs noted,
is much greater if the yield obtained at the University farm only are
considered. Here in 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1898, Minnesota No. 169
gave an average yield of 28.3 bushels per acre, while the parent sort the
same years averaged only 22.5 bushels per acre, an average increase
during four years of 5.8 bushels per acre. The greater yield obtained at
the University farm is easily understood when it is remembered that the
new strain was selected here and thus was bred to suit the local condi-
tions. This emphasizes the necessity of conducting selection experi-
ments with the standard races in different localities to obtain strains
best adapted to the local conditions. In this regard wheat is no exception
to the general rule. It has been found repeatedly with various plants
that varieties originated in one locality and adapted to one set of con-
ditions, when removed to a dififerent locality where different conditions
obtain, mav give indifferent results or fail completely.

The wc;rk of selection to increase the yield and better adapt wheat
to local conditions is simple so that it can readily be carried on by
any intelligent grower, and the writer would urge this as a very practical
and feasible line of improvement for local growers to undertake. The
improvement of quality, increasing of gluten content, and the like, and
hybridization experiments require considerable skill and greater facili-
ties for testing, and so on, and probably can be successfully carried out
only by those who make a specialty of such work.

Wheat is one of the most important agricultural crops in New York,
but is, nevertheless, one in which we seldom find any method of seed
improvement in use. About the only method used ordinarily to im-
prove the seed is the separation of the plump and heavy seed from the
poor, light seed, by some method of screening or by use of air blast
separators. What is needed is the adoption generally of some systematic
method of breeding which will be simple enough so that it is satisfactory
for general use. Wheat is normally self- fertilized, almost no crossing
occurring naturally, and it is, therefore, a very easy plant to handle in
breeding as the different individuals or plots which are being grown do
not require to be jilanted in isolated locations but can be grown together
in the same field.

Plant-Breeding for Farmers.

155

In the production of new varieties, the breeder would expect to use
careful methods of hybridization and selection, but in general these
methods are too complex for ordinary use. However, the writer be-
lieves that it is possible even for practical farmers, to produce varieties
of value and to greatly improve the yield of their own crop. There are
three simple methods of wheat-breeding which appeal to the writer as
practical for farmers gener-
ally to undertake. One of
these methods of improve-
ment is the selection of
chance variations or sports
and the propagation from
them of improved varieties.
A second method is the sys-
tematic selection of the best
yielding plants from a well
known race to secure more
highly productive strains,
and a third method is the
selection of largs heads or
ears for seed. Following is
a discussion of these three
methods.

Nezv varieties from chance
variations or sports
of zvlicat.

Selecting the good plants,
first generation. — A consider-
able number of our best va-
rieties or races of wheat have
been produced by selecting
in the field or along the
roadsides, individual plants
which because of their

Fic. 141. — J'ariaiioiis in sij:e of heads of Gold
Coin Zi'licat. Three-fourths natural size.

marked superiority were recognized as especially good plants and pre-
served for seed purposes.

Marked variations or sports possessing improved characters occa-
sionally occur in fields of cereals and these are sometimes found by ob-
serving growers and developed by selection into valuable races.

ATany of our well known races of wheat have apparently origina-
ted in this way. The Tappahannock wheat which, in 1872, was consid-
ered to be a valuable race was found in 1854 by a Mr. Boughton, of Essex

156

BULLETIX 251.

County, Virginia. The account of its discovery as given in the Report
of the Department of Agriculture for 1872 is as follows: " He noticed in
his field a bunch of wheat of such growth as to attract his attention * =^' *
At harvest he found it to be a white wheat, at least two weeks
earlier than the surrounding red wheat." The Fultz wheat, which is

Fig, 142. — Good and poor heads of Sciteca Chief zvlieat zvith grain
from siiiiilar heads. About txvo-tliirds natural sice.

a very popular and excellent race, grown extensivey in the eastern states,
was found in 1862 in a field of Lancaster Rod by a ]\Ir. Abraham Fultz
of Pennsylvania. Some beautiful heads of smooth wheat attracted his at-
tention and they were saved and the seeds planted by themselves.
These produced the wheat later named the Fultz. The American
races, Wheatland ]\(:(], Pride of Butte, and Gold Coin, and the well
known Fnglish races. Tlopctown and Chevalier, were other acciden-

Plant-Breei;1x\g for Farmers. 157

tal seeding variations. The Pride of Butte wheat, quite well known
in California, was found in a field of rye and because of its extreme
vigor was saved for trial. The Gold Coin wheat (Fig. 141), a seed-
ling sport differing from the Hybrid Mediterranean in being bald
and wdiite, was found by Mr. Ira W. Green, of New York, in a field
of that race and improved by selection. Mr. Green informs me
that by five years of selection he succeeded in fixing the type and mean-
while increased its yield about ten per cent.

It is probable that a dozen sports or mutations of wheat plants are
produced every year in New York; any one of which if observed and
propagated without further selection would form valuable new varieties,
possibly superior to any we now have. Only an isolated individual here
and there is watching for such superior plants and testing them. Cannot
more farmers be induced to familiarize themselves with the standard
wheat varieties, form a critical idea of a good wheat plant, and be on the
lookout for such superior plants? Almost all farmers think they know a
good wheat plant but it is questionable whether many have observed
the individual plants carefully enough so that they would recognize a
plant having a larger number of stools tlian common, or exceptional
yield as judged by the average size of all heads on the plant, etc. Dif-
ferent v/heat plants and varieties should be studied till the breeder can
recognize exceptional plants as to size of head, yield of grain, good quality
and size of grain, number of stools, strength of straw, etc. (Fig. 142).
Equipped with this knowledge, the grower is ready to search the road sides,
fence corners, wheat-fields, oat-, barley- and rye-fields, indeed to be on
the lookout constantly and everywhere for wheat plants showing desirable
qualities. Don't wait until the wheat is mature and ready to cut before
searching for such good plants. As soon as the wheat is large enough to
show mature size of heads begin the search. As plants are located
which appear promising, mark them or note their location so that the
mature seed can be gathered later. The number of plants to be selected
should be limited only by the breeder's enthusiasm and the time at his
disposal. The more the better is the only instruction that can be given,
as the greater number of selections made, the greater is the probability
that one individual of exceptional value may be found. If possible, at
least several hundred should be selected.

When the plants are ripe the seed from each plant sh.ould be gathered
and preserved in separate sacks. If you have scales of sufficient fineness
it would be desirable and interesting to weigh the total grain from each
plant and preserve this record for future comparison. Number each
selected plant by the system discussed in early part of this paper (see
page 142). These plants are the first generation selections.

158 Bulletin 251.

Planting the selections/^ Plant the seed of each plant separately in
a short row by the so-called '' plant- to-row-mcthod." A satisfactory
way is to place the rows one foot apart. About every twentieth row
should be planted with seed of some standard variety for comparison,
and it would be well also to plant rows of several other standard varieties
for comparison. If the land on which the selections are planted is
weedy it will recpiire to be hoed once or twice during the spring to keep the
weeds down.

When the selections begin to ripen note the season of maturing of the
rows from different individuals, and when, they are fully ripe go over
each row carefully and study their comparative value with each other
and with the rows of standard varieties planted with them. Discard
all rows which are apparently inferior in yield or are badly affected with
any disease, such as rust or smut or which show any noticeable tendency
to lodge or shatter badly. It is highly important to secure varieties
which will not winter-kill badly, and rows which are noticeably affected
by winter-killing should be discarded unless the winter has been so
severe that all of the progenies are badly affected. \n such a case choose
those injured the least. Retain the superior good rows. Each row
thus selected should be examined to see that all of the plants in the row
are of uniform type. If any plants in a certain row diff'er from the
general type of the row they should be pulled out and thrown away.
These rows should then be harvested separately and the seed from
each preserved separately. Keep the seed numbered in accordance
with the number of the individual plant first selected. Carefully preserve
records of yield, earliness, hardiness, etc., of the different numbers.

Second generation. — With the seed of each selected row of the pre-
ceding year, plant a drill row 17 feet long using a definite rate of seeding;
one-half ounce of seed per row would be at the rate of about one and one-
half bushels of seed per acre and should be thick enough. These 17-foot
rows should be planted one foot apart so that one row represents -^ of a
square rod or 25V0 of an acre. Plant as many 17- foot rows from each
kind as the amount of seed obtained will plant, but if more than one row
is planted place them in different parts of the field in order to obtain a
better judgment of the variation due to soil. In planting the 17-foot
rows at least every twentieth mw should again be planted with a standard
variety for comparison.

\\''hen the grain is ripe examine them as in the first generation and
discard all inferior rows. Harvest and thresh each select row, keeping
them separate and saving all seed of the best rows. Carefully weigh the

*Thc row method of testing varieties and selections described here is based
on the inctliod devised by Prof. J- B. Norton in the breeding- of oats. Am.
Breeders' Association Vol. Ill, p. 280.

pLAXT-BKIiEDI.NC; FOR FARMERS. 159

grain from each row and compare the yield per row with the yields from
the rows of the standard varieties and record the results. This will
give an indication of the yielding capacities of the different select strains.

Third generation. — As in the preceding year plant 17-foot rows of all
of the second generation rows selected and of a few of the very best and
highest yielding strains plant larger plots to increase the seed for more
extensive planting.

When the test rows of this year have been examined, threshed and
the production per row obtained and compared with the production per
row in the second generation tests, the experimenter should be in posi-
tion to form a fair idea as to which strains are the best yielders. Save a
few of the best for more extensive trials in the fifth year. Of some of
these best strains where small increase plots were grown, there should be
sufficient seed for comparatively large increase plots in the fourth genera-
tion.

Fourth generation. — Plant 17-foot test rows of the strains retained in
the third generation in comparison with some standard varieties and where
the seed is abundant several of these test rows should be planted in different
parts of the test plot. Plant as large increase plots of the most promising
strains as the seed obtained will permit.

Examine the test rows when ripe, harvest and weigh the product of each
separately, as heretofore, carefully preserving the yield records. Xow
compare the test row and increase-plot yields of each strain for the three
years with each other and with the yields of the standard varieties
which also should have been retained in the test for comparison. The
breeder should with the data now accumulated be able to determine
whether any of his strains have yielded better than ordinary varieties
and are thus valuable to retain for extensive trial. All but those which
he believes to be superior to any other grown and to the standard varie-
ties, should be discarded. It is safe at this point to discard all but two or
three strains, and if only one strain is markedly superior probably all but
this one should be discarded. All of the seed from test rows and increase
plots of the strains finally selected should be preserved and a large field
planted the next season.

If the grower has reason to believe that he has secured a superior
variety of high yielding capacity he should as soon as possible have it
tested by his neighbors and distribute the seed as extensively as the results
obtained with the variety justify. If extensive tests prove it to be a
superior variety is should be given a distinctive name so that it will not be-
come confounded with other sorts.

The above outline is based on selecting entire plants and getting the
total product of the different plants in beginning the selection. In
many cases, it is found handy to simply select large, fine heads which ap-

i6o Bulletin 251.

parently represent good plants and plant the product of each head or
ear in a row by itself, the same as is described for planting the individual
plants, except that where heads only are selected there \\ill not be seed
enough for a 17- foot row. In this case the rows will have to be made
short in accordance with the amount of seed in the head selected. Ordi-
narily these will furnish enough seed for one or two 17-foot rows the
next generation. The further tests should be carried out exactly as de-
scribed above where whole plants are selected.

Systciiwtic selection of JiigJi-yielding varieties.

Another line of work similar to the above and which should be carried
out in the different years in exactly the same way, is the selection of w^ell-
known races to secure high-yielding strains. If the farmer is growing a
standard variety which he has thoroughly tested on his farm and which
he knows to be well adapted to the local conditions, he may be able to
secure a higher-yielding strain by selecting and testing the highest yield-
ing plants. To carry out this work go through a field of the variety
just before cutting and select out a number of the best-yielding plants.
These should be harvested and the product of each plant preserved
separately and planted the next year by the plant-to-row method. Carry
out the test of these plants through several years exactly as described above
for the selection of chance variations and sports.

Selection of large heads of .wheat.

As explained in the early part of this paper, in general the individual
is the unit of selection which should be followed. There is, however,
considerable evidence to show that nuicli improvement may be accom-
plished by the simple selection of large heads.

The simplest application of this method consists in examining a
field of a good standard variety and selecting a quantity of the largest
heads. To start this work well, enough heads should be selected to make
at least a bushel or more of seed. Thresh this seed together and plant it
in a good field the next year in an increase-plot. This if seeded fairly
lightly will give a field of an acre or more.

When this increase-plot is ri])e go over it again and select out enough
large heads for a similar sized plot the third year. Harvest the remainder
of the crop together and use the seed to plant the general crop of
the third year. Tliis method of selection should be continued year after
year as a regular way of getting good seed for planting. This policy
has been followed extensively in Canada and is reported as giving very
satisfactorv results.

Plant-Breeding for Farmers.

i6i

IV. IMPROVEMENT OF OATS AND BARLEY.

Like wheat, oats and barley are self- fer-
tilized plants and, therefore, do not require that
the breeding-patches be isolated from the gen-
eral crop. What has been said regarding the
methods which can be used in wheat-breeding
applies equally well to oats and barley. The
breeding of oats has been much neglected and
few pure bred strains exist. \"arieties are
frequently very much mixed with different
types and growers ordinarily fail to observe
this mixture. In starting the selections, there-
fore, the different types of heads and grain
should be studied until they are familiar to the
breeder in order that he may recognize impu-
rities in the strains he is selecting and be able
to weed them out. In barley also, the same
statement holds true. In all cases the breeder
must study the crop he is attempting to breed
until he is familiar with the different types and
with the market requirements.

With oats and barley, the three methods of
breeding described above for wheat may be
followed in every detail and thus do not
need to be repeated. The breeders of these
crops should examine methods described for
wheat under the headings : r, new varieties
from chance variations or, sports. (This bul-
letin p. 315) ; 2, systematic selection of high-
yielding varieties. (This bulletin p. 319) ,
3, selection of large heads. (This bulletin p.
320). In oat- and. barley-breeding the at-
tention of the breeder should primarily be
directed to securing the best-yielding strains
for a certain region representing a certain
soil and climatic condition (Fig. 143). In-
creased yield of a good product is always the
primary problem. Secondary problems to
which a grower can give attention if desired
are, season of maturity ; that is producing
early or late varieties and in a few instances
quality of the product. In oats a large heavy

Fig. 143. — Good and poor
oat plants grozving side
by side in the same field.

i62 Bulletin 251.

grain is important as otherwise the product will be too light. Again,
a white oat ahvays sells better than the black or dark colored varieties.
While the color of an oat in no way affects its intrinsic value so far as we
know, nevertheless the market prefers a white oat, and thus if we
can get the same yield in a white oat, it is the preferable sort.
The grower should always be on the lookout for diseases in his selection-
patches and discard the progeny of any selection which is found to
be particularly susceptible to any diseases such as rust or smut, or which
shows a tendency to lodge, or to shatter. Some varieties lodge much more
readily than others and this is an objectionable character. In oats in
particular some strains have the grains lightly attached and as soon as they
ripen the grains begin to fall. As the rijiening at best is somewhat uneven,
this tendency to shatter as it is called, if pronounced in a variety,
may cause considerable loss.

V. METHOD OF IMPROVING POTATOES.

The potato is very extensively cultivated in New York and is one of
our most important agricultural crops. In 1906, according to the
statistics gathered by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the New York
acreage was 420.406 acres, which gave an average yield of 105
bushels per acre and a total crop of 44.142,630 bushels. The average
valuation is given as 49 cents per bushel, at which rate the farm value
of the crop in New York was $21,629,889. New York stands first among
the states in potato production, both as to amount of acreage, total
product and value of product. Michigan, the next largest potato-pro-
ducing state, in 1906 grew 285,000 acres, which gave a yield of 27,075,000
bushels of potatoes. While New York stands first in acreage and total
production, our average yield, 105 bushels per acre in 1906 and 70
bushels per acre in 1905, is low. In yield per acre. New York ranked
sixteenth among tlie states in 1906 and forty-second in T905. In the
case of a crop of such value to the State it is important that every means
be used to increase the production. Probably less attention has been given
to the selection of the seed by farmers generally than to an\- other factor
of their cultivation. Hie breeding of new clons or varieties of potatoes is
naturally accomplished mainly by the growing of seedlings and the selection
of the best, or by the hybridization of different varieties.

The majority of our ordinary varieties of potatoes, however, have lost
the ability to produce fertile seeds except un;ler rare conditions. This
sterility is apparently due to the continued amelioration under con-
tinuous vegetative propagation from the tubers. Thi' history of develop-
ment of cultivated plants as a whole indicates that when a plant is pro-
pagated for many years vegetatively it gradually shows a tendency to

Plant-Breedixg for Farmers.

163

produce fewer and fewer seeds. This would naturally be especially true
when as, in the potato, the part for which the plant is grown is not the
fruit. The difficulty of obtaining seeds from our ordinary types and,
furthermore, the cost and expense of growing and testing seedlings, would
preclude this type of potato-breeding from being recommended as desir-
able for farmers generally to undertake. Fortunately, however, we
have in the potato an illustration of a plant that can apparently be
greatly improved by tuber or bud selection. Where a single whole
tuber is planted in a hill the yield of the hill becomes a measure of the
productivity of the bud which formed the seed tuber planted. Ex-
periments which have been conducted by several investigators, have
demonstrated that hills differ greatly in their productivity and that this
tendency is one which is in considerable degree transmitted to the hill or
tuber progeny. The most reliable results of this kind of which the writer
has knowledge, are those which have been obtained by C. W. Wade of the
Ohio Experiment Station, at Wooster, Ohio.^

In these experiments which were begun in 1903, ten high-yielding
hills and twenty low-yielding hills were selected and the seed preserved
separately. In 1904. ten hills each were planted from seed of the ten
heavy hills and five hills each from seed of the light-yielding hills, making
100 hills of each group. To compare with these as a check, 100 hills
were planted from seed which had been selected without reference to indi-
vidual hills.

In 1905, 100 hills were again planted with seed from high-yielding
hills and 100 hills from low-yielding hills, the seed being selected respec-
tively from the high-yielding and low-yielding hills of the 1904 crop. A
similar check to that of the preceding year was also planted. In 1906
the same policy was pursued, the results reported thus representing three
years of selection. The following table quoted from Mr. Wade's report
summarizes the results clearly.

Summary of Results from Use of Seed Potatoes from High-Yielding Hills

AND from Low- Yielding Hills.

(I 'arid y, Caniiaii Xo 3.)

Yield of

roo Hills

Number of Tubers in ioo
Hills

SOURCE OF SEED

Total
1904

Total
190S

Total
1906

Average
1904-5-6

Total
1904

Total
190S

Total
1906

Average
1904-S-6

High- yielding hills

Lbs.

125

IIS
84

Lbs.
173
136

75

Lbs.
116

79
61

Lbs.
'38
1 10
73

781

713
566

865
630
546

676
479
364

774

607

Low-yielding hills

492

1 C. W. Wade, " Results of Hill Selection of Seed Potatoes," American
Breeders' Association, Vol. HI, 191-198 (1907). See also Bull. 174, Ohio Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.

164

Bulletin 251.

It will be seen from this table that the average yield of the 100 heavy
hills for the three years was 138 pounds against a similar average of 73
pounds for the light-yielding hills. This and other experiments indicate
the importance of the hill selection of potatoes and the writer believes that
breeding-work of this nature will prove very valuable for the potato-grower
to pursue with the view to improving the seed primarily for his own culti-
vation and possibly also for sale as seed. Following is a short outline of
such a method of breeding, which will serve as a guide to farmers desiring
to start work of this kind.

Fig. 144. — Tubers of Rural New Yorker. Very nearly one-half natural size. Top
roiv, left, poor-shaped spherical tuber, too large; right, good-shaped tuber of
about right size. Bottom row, left, good-shaped tuber with good eyes, but too
small; right, tuber too long and too large.

Selection of foundation stoclz of potatoes.
Probably no crop generally grown is more influenced by environment
than the potato. The experience of growers indicates that a variety found
to be the best suited to the local conditions on one farm may not
prove to be the variety best suited to the conditions existing on an ad-
joining farm. It thus becomes desirable for any farmer who is growing
potatoes extensively, to test varieties sufficiently to determine which is
the variety best suited for the local conditions concerned. This ordi-

Plant-Breeding for Farmers. 165

narily does not require an extensive test as the experience of growers in a
region has usually shown the general superiority of a comparatively few
varieties and the test can thus be limited to these varieties which in
general are known to be the best. The writer would not urge this test
of varieties, if it were not very important to begin any breeding-work
with the best variety available. Breeding-work requires so much at-
tention, that it does not pay to start work with an inferior variety. The
first work of anyone contemplating breeding with potatoes is thus,
determining the best foundation stock to use for the selection work.
If the grower has had extensive experience in growing potatoes and has
determined that a certain variety gives the best results under his condi-
tions, he is in position to start the selection work without a further test of
varieties.

Grozving potatoes for selection.

The influence of the number of eyes and size of piece planted as seed
has so much to do with the yield of the hill that fields planted in the
ordinary way are very poorly adapted to begin the work of selection.
It is of primary importance that the first selections made be of the very
highest type obtainable, as it is a common experience that the first selec-
tion is the most important. Too much attention cannot be given
therefore, to the first selection. The writer would thus urge the following
method as one of the most satisfactory to be pursued:

( 1 ) Examine a large number of tubers of the variety selected as the
foundation stock and decide on the most desirable shape and type of
tuber. In general a moderately large tuber, which is oblong or some-
what cylindrical in shape and oblong in cross section is considered most
desirable (Fig. 10). A spherical tuber if sufficiently large to be desirable
is so thick that in cooking, the outside is liable to become over done before
the interior is properly cooked. A tuber with shallow eyes, netted surface
and white color, is also usually preferred.

(2) When the ideal character and size have been determined,
examine a large number of tubers and pick out a thousand or more
having this size, shape and general character. This is work that can be
done in the late fall and winter when there is no rush of other farm work,
and time should be taken to obtain a considerable number of these tubers
of the same character. These are to be used as the seed for planting the
selection-plot and the number selected should correspond to the size of
the plot which it is desired to plant, four hills being planted with each
tuber. There should certainly not be less than 1000 and a much larger
number is very desirable. The prospective breeder should remember
that success in- breeding-work depends upon selecting the one individual
that gives the very highest yield possible under the conditions, and the

i66 Bulletin 251.

larger the number of individuals examined the more likely is he to dis-
cover the one producing the maximum yield which will give a valuable
new strain. There is no loss in growing the selection-plot aside from the
greater amount of time required for the digging so that one should grow a
considerable number of plants.

(3) The planting should be arranged in such a way as to secure a
test of the productivity of each tuber. To do this the following method
may be recommended. Cut each tuber into four uniform sized pieces
making each cut longitudinally so that each piece will contain an equal
proportion of the basal end and apical end of the tuber. Plant four hills
with each tuber, one piece in a hill. These should be planted consecu-
tively in each row beginning at one end, so that starting at that end the
first four hills will be from one tuber, the second four hills from another
and so on throughout the length of the row. The object in planting this way
is so that the four hills can be dug together and the total product weighed to
obtain a measure of the productivity of the seed tuber planted. Pro-
bably the best way to plant these is to drop the selected tubers one to
each four hills and then go over the row and cut each tuber and plant its
quota of four hills. The hills in the row should be planted somewhat
farther apart than in ordinary planting, probably from 20 to 24 inches.
If this is not done a somewhat greater distance than ordinary should be
left between each four-hill tuber-unit. The writer would advise that one
hill be left unplanted between each four-hill unit. It would doubtless
be convenient and desirable to have the plants in rows both ways to
facilitate digging. For this selection-plot of potatoes, choose a field of
moderately good fertility and as uniform throughout in soil as is possible
to obtain.

(4) Manure and cultivate the ])lot of potatoes grown for selection
exactly the same as you do your ordinary crop.

How to make tlir selections of potatoes.

Field examination. — A careful examination of the selection-field should
be made as the vines begin to mature and while they are yet green.
This examination should include observations on diseases and vigor of
the tops. If there are any marked differences apparent between the
different four-hill units, those with the best appearing, most healthy tops
should be marked by small stakes w^hich can be stuck in the ground
beside the hills. This field examination while probably important in careful
work could ]:)robabl}' be omitted without very great loss, as after all the
yield is the primary character.

Digging the selection-field. — The digging of the field grown for
selection purposes requires considerable care, and here hand work is neces-
sary. Dig each four-liill unit grown from the same tuber separately.

Plant-Breedixg for Farmers. 167

being careful to get all of the product and avoid cutting or injuring the
tubers as much as possible. Carefully place the product of each four-
hill tuber-unit together at one side of the row, and if it is a tuber-unit
marked with a stake in the field examination, keep the stake with the
product of the unit. A good way to dig the field to avoid getting the
hills of the different tuber-units mixed, is to dig across the field, in a
direction at right angles to the direction the rows were planted. First
dig the four hills of the first tuber planted in the first row, then the four
from die first tuber in the second row, then the same in the third row,
fourth row, etc., through the field. Next dig the four hills from the
second tuber planted in the first row, then the four from the second tuber
in the second row, etc. By this method of digging especially if the hills
are rowed both ways, there will be little danger of mixing the product of
the four-hill units.

Making the selections. — The problem now is to select out from fifty to
one hundred of the best tuber-units. Best, that is, in yield, uniformity
of product, color, shape, etc. After the potatoes are dug and the pro-
duct of each tuber unit is laid out separately, the real work of selection
begins. The following are the important steps in this process :

(i) Go over the field and study the tuber-units in a gross way until
you have well in mind the variations in yield and the general uniformity
of the tubers in the various tuber-units. Remember that total yield is
not the only important character. What one wants is to discover those
tuber-units which have the largest yield of good merchantable potatoes
of the best shape and appearance. Size up the field as a whole with
reference to these characters.

(2) Go over each row carefully and throw out all of those tuber-
units which can be clearly seen to be inferior. These can be thrown to-
gedier and placed with the general crop of potatoes. For the interest
of the grower, however, it would be well to weigh the product from
some of the light yielding tuber-units and preserve the figures as a matter
of showing the extent of variation occurring. By this first discarding
process the number of tuber-units will probably have been reduced to
two or three hundred. It is very probable that in some cases that one or
more of the hills of a four-hill tuber-unit will not grow. In such cases
the tuber-unit will have to be judged in proportion to the number of
hills actually grown.

(3) Now, provide yourself with scales of some handy pattern like
the ordinary counter scales used by grocers, with which the product
of each tuber-unit can be easily and quickly weighed. A satisfactory
scale should weigh accurately to at least a half ounce. Weight the
product of the remaining tuber-units, examine the tubers more care-
fully as to their character and uniformity of size in the tuber-unit and

i68 Bulletin 251.

select about fifty of the best units. These fifty units should naturally be
from those marked as having good healthy vines in the first examination,
before digging, unless all of the vines at that time were in fairly good
condition. In making these final selections if some hills in a tuber-unit
are missing the comparative yield can be easily calculated. If one hill is
missing a comparative yield for four hills in obtained by increasing the
weight from the three hills by one third, li two hills are missing a
comparative yield for four hills would be double that obtained from the
two hills. If more than two hills are missing discard the unit entirely.

The product of the tuber-units selected should then be placed in
paper bags, the product of one tuber-unit only being placed in a bag. A
good bag for the purpose is the twelve pound manilla paper bag used by
grocers. Number each tuber-unit consecutively and place this number
on the bag. In your notebook record under the number of each tuber-
unit, the number of large, medium sized, and small tubers and the total
weight of the product. The bags containing the seed should then be
placed in suitable storage where they will not be torn and the tubers
mixed. The tubers from the best discarded tuber-units should be re-
tained to plant the general crop the next year.

If at digging time the grower is crowded with work and wishes to
save time, the two or three hundred tuber units retained after the first
gross selection (see paragraph 2 above), could be placed in paper bags
and the more careful examination and weighing of the product delayed
until some convenient time during the winter when the final selection
could be made. The 12 pound paper bags of good quality should cost
only about 40 cents per hundred. If the 12 pound paper bag is too
small use a 16 pound bag.

Selecting seed for the second years planting.

Some time during the winter or at any convenient period before
planting time carefully examine the product of each select tuber-unit and
pick out the ten best tubers of each as judged by the ideal standard of a
good tuber which has been taken as the type of the selection. The ten
best of each retain in the numbered sacks for planting and discard the
remaining tubers.

Second yca^-'s planting. — In the further handling of the selections
made the first year the planting the second year must be arranged in
order to test the productive power of each of the fifty select tuber-units.
Plant each tulier-unit in a row by itself 1)y the same method used in
planting the first year's crop (see p. TfS5). That is, plant four hills with
each tuber cutting the tuber longitudinally into four equal sized quarters,
making each cut from base to apex of the tuber. As ten select tubers
were retained from each tuber-unit this will make forty hills per row

Plant-Breeding for Farmers. 169

and if fifty tuber-units were selected there will be 500 tubers to plant
which will make a total of 2000 hills in the breeding-plot. The land
used for this breeding-plot should be carefully selected for uniformity,
as variations in the land will modify the comparative yield and is liable
to render the results untrustworthy. Number each row of forty hills
with the number given the tuber-unit of the preceding year. It is de-
sirable for comparison to plant about every tenth row with unselected
seed of the same variety, cut and planted in the same way, but without
reference to keeping each tuber separate. The production of these check-
rows will show whether progress is being made in the selection.

Cultivate the breeding-plot and treat it otherwise just as an ordinary
crop is treated.

Making the second year's selections. — -When the breeding-plot nears
maturity the individuals should be examined and either the best and
healthiest vines marked, or if easier, the diseased vines showing weakness
marked, so that they can be discarded later. Then dig each tuber-unit
as in the preceding year placing the tubers from each four-hole unit to-
gether at the side of the row. Each unit should then be weighed and the
number of large, medium and small sized tuber recorded. This will
enable the breeder to determine which of the original fifty tuber-units
selected in the first year has given the largest average yield in the ten
tuber-units or forty hill test, and this is the primary test of the value of
the original selection. Following the same method as used the first year,
select from the breeding-plot the fifty best tuber-units, and preserve
the tubers of each unit separately in a paper bag. The majority of the
selection in this year should naturally be made from those rows which
have given the highest yield. Number the tuber-units selected in this
second generation i-i, 1-2, 1-3, and 2-1, 2-2, etc., according to the
scheme of numbering individual selections described in early part of this
bulletin, page 142. These numbers can be placed on the bags and notes
on weight of yield, number of tubers per unit, etc., recorded under the
same number.

All of the good tubers from the remaining tuber-units of the breeding-
plot not selected should be retained for planting a mutiplication-plot the
third year which should furnish sufficient seed for planting the general
crop for the fourth year.

At some convenient period, before planting time, as in the preceding
year go over the product of each select tuber-unit and pick out the ten
best tubers of each for the next year's planting.

Third year's selections. — In the third year, the fifty selections of
heavy yielding tuber-units should be planted by the same methods used
the second year, forty hills at least of each selection being planted. The
row from each unit should be plainly labeled or otherwised marked to
avoid mixing the pedigree. Treat this breeding-plot as described for the

I/O

Bulletin 251.

breeding-plot in the second year, weigh up the product of each four-hill
tuber-unit in the same way to determine which unit of the second year's
selections has transmitted in greatest degree the tendency to yield heavily.
Finally, select again the fifty best tuber-units to continue the breeding,
and retain the good tubers of discarded units to plant a multiplication-
plot in the fourth year. The numbering of the units in this year can be
continued according to the same policy.

In the third year, a multiplication-plot should be planted with the
good tubers from the discarded tuber-units of the breeding-plot of the
second year. In planting this plot, the grower can use any method of
cutting and planting the tubers which he thinks most desirable. This
plot should give enough seed to plant a fairly large plot in the fourth
year.

Fourth year's selections. — In the fourth and succeeding years the
selection should be carried on by the same plan as outlined above. When
this system is well under way, it will be seen that each year the breeder
is growing a small breeding-plot, a larger multiplication-plot for seed
purposes and a general crop.

Further considerations. — As the selection progresses many of the
strains from the original fifty tuber-units will be entirely discarded,
the breeder must be continuously watching for the appearance of heavy
yielding strains and if such a strain is discovered all of the further selec-
tions should be made from this strain. Such a strain is well illustrated
in the selection from heavy yielding hills made by ^^'^ade. The following
table showing Wade's results is very interesting :

Yields (by weight) from Seed Selected from High-Yielding Hills.

{Variety, Carman No. 3.)

Yields of groups of lo hills each grown from original hills or from their products.

HILL No.

1 .

2 .
3-
4-
S-
6.

7-
8.

9-
10.

Totals.

Yield of

selected hills,

1903

Lbs.

Oz.
8.0

13

10

2

3

I

I

14

Total for lo-

hill group,

1904

Lbs.

13

S

2

I
2
o
3
o
2

Oz.

12.0
4-5
i-S

iS-o
8.S
9-5
8.5

II -S

14. 5
0.5

I2S

6.0

Total for

corres

Donding

ic-hill

groups.

19

OS*

Lbs.

Oz.

16

3-0

IS

9

18

3

17

1 1

16

9

IS

18

7

18

I

19

10

18

8

173

13

Total for

corresponding

lo-hill groups,

1906*

Lbs.
9
9
10
I
I
4
5
3
I
o

Oz.

4.8

o

14

I

10

3
1 1

4
6

S

116

13 -o

Average

lo-hill groups,

1904-5-6

Lbs.
13
13
13
13
13
13
IS
14
14
13

Oz.
1-3
4.7

ii-S
9-3
9-3
4.2

14.3
0.3

10. 2
9.8

* Average yield of original and duplicate tests.

Plant-Breeding for Farmers. 171

By examining the table it will be seen that hill No. 7 which had the
highest yield of the original ten hills selected, in each of the three years
during which the selections continued, gave a very high yield, and the
highest average yield of any for the three years. This strain would seem
to possess unquestionable merit and to be one to propagate from.

In advocating the selection of but fifty tuber-units and the planting
of ten tubers only from each select unit the writer has had in mind
the reduction of the work to a comparatively simple plan which would
be possible of execution by many growers. It would unquestionably be
better to handle larger numbers if the grower is so situated that he can
take the time for it. It is, however, better to use comparatively small
numbers carefully than to attempt to handle large numbers and find the
work too extensive. The plan provides, however, for testing the yield
of 500 tubers each year and this number should give opportunity to
secure good selections. The method of selection here proposed, which
Professor J. B. Norton has aided the writer in devising, is based on the
tuber and its yielding capacity as a unit. It is somewhat difi^erent from
any method which has been used heretofore, and is somewhat complex.
It is primarily the same as the ordinary hill selection, but is believed
to furnish a more accurate method of judging the yielding capacity of
the mother tuber which is fundamentally what the hill selection is supposed
to do. The difficulty in cutting uniform sized pieces with eyes equally
favored renders the ordinary hill method very unreliable for general use,
and the tuber-unit plan is believed to avoid this difficulty.

SOME IMPORTANT BOOKS AND BULLETINS ON SUBJECTS DIS-
CUSSED IN THIS BULLETIN.

On the principles am! methods of breeding.

Bailey. L. H. Plant-breeding. 4th edition. New York, Macmillan & Co. 1906.
De Vries, Hugo. Plant-breeding. Chicago. Open Court Publishing Co. 1907.
Davenport, E. Principles of Breeding. Boston, Ginn & Co. 1907.
East, E. M. The Relation of Certain Biological Principles to Plant-breeding.

Bull. 158, Connecticut Agric. Exp. Station. New Haven. Conn.
Hays, W. 1\I. Plant-breeding. U. S. Department of Agric, Div. Veg. Phys. and

Path. Bull. 29. 1901.
Hunt. T. F. The Cereals in America. New York. Orange Judd Co. 1906.
Webber, H. J. Improvement of Plants by Selection. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of

Agric. i8g8 pp. .355-376.
American Breeders' Association, Reports Volumes I, II, and III, Washington,

D. C. (Copies of these reports can be secured at $i.co per volume from Hon.

W. M. Hays, Secretary, Washington, D. C).

On corn-breeding.
Hartley, C. P. Improvement of Corn by Seed Selection. U. S. Dept. Agric.

Yearbook 1902 pp. 539^552.
Hartley, C. P. Production of Good Seed Corn. U. S. Dept. Agric. Farmers,

Bull. 229 (1905).

172 Bulletin 251.

Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana. Illinois.

Bull 53. — The Chemistry of The Corn Kernel. By C. G. Hopkins.

Bull. 55. — Improvement in The Chemical Composition of The Corn Kernel.

By C. G. Hopkins.
Bull. 63. — Seed Corn and Some Standard Varieties for Illinois. By A. D.

Shamel.
Bull 82. — Methods of Corn-Breeding. By C. G. Hopkins.
Bull. 87. — The Structure of The Corn Kernel and The Composition of Its
Different Parts. By C. G. Hopkins, L. H. Smith and E. M. East.
Bull. 100. — Directions for The Breedmg of Corn. Including ]Methods for the
Prevention of Inbreeding. By C. G. Hopkins, L. H. Smith, and
E. M. East.
Indiana Experiment Station, Lafayette, Indiana.

Bull. 105. — Corn Improvement in Indiana. By A. T. Wiancko.
Bull. no. — Corn Improvement. By A. T. Wiancko.
Iowa Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa.

Bull. 68. — Selecting and Preparing Seed Corn. By P. G. Holden et al.
Bull. "]"]. — Selecting and Preparing Seed Corn. By P. G. Holden.
Ohio Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio.

Bull. 140. — The Corn-Crop. By C. G. Williams.
Circular 42. — Pedigree Seed Corn. By C. G. Williams.
Circular 53. — Experiments with Corn. By C. G. Williams.
American Breeders' Association, Reports Vols. I, II and III See articles by
J. Dvvight Funk, C. P. Hartley, C G. Hopkins, C. G. Williams.

On wheat-breeding.

Carleton, M. A. The Basis for The Improvement of American Wheats. U. S.

Dept. Agric, Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bull. 24 (1900).
Hays, W. -NI. and Boss, A. Wheat : Varieties Breeding and Cultivation. Bull.

62, Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta., St. Anthony Park, Minnesota.
Hays, W. M. Plant-breeding. U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. Veg. Phys. and Path.

Bull. 29 (1901).
Lyon, T. L. Improving the Quality of Wheat. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bureau

Plant Industry Bull. 74 (1905).
American Breeders' Association, Reports I, II and III, see articles by M. A.

Carleton, Alvin Keyser, C. A. Zavitz and T. L. Lyon.

On oat-breeding

Carleton, M. A. Improvement of The Oat Crop. 14 Biennial Report Kansas

State Board Agriculture pp. 32-42.

Norton, J. B. Notes on Breeding Oats. Am. Breeders' Assoc. Vol. 3, pp. 280-
285.

On potato-breeding.

Eraser, Samuel. The Potato. N. Y., Orange Judd Co. 1905.

Wade, C. W. Results of Hill Selection of Seed Potatoes. Am. Breeders' Assoc.

Vol. 3, pp. 191-198. Also Bull. 174 Ohio Agric. Exp. Sta., Wooster, Ohio.

(To obtain copies of Yearbooks, Bulletins, etc., published by the Department
of Agiiculture, which in general are distributed free of cost, write to the Honor-
able Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Bulletins of the State Experi-
ment Stations can usually be obtained free of charge by addressing the Directors
of the Stations. The location of each station mentioned is given in the above list.)

MARCH. 1908

BULLETIN 252

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF
THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Departments of Horticulture, Entomology and Plant Pathology

INSECT PESTS AND
PLANT DISEASES

ITHACA, N. Y.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY.

173

ORGANIZATION

Of The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station.

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.

FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station.

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.

HENRY H. VYING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

EXPERIMENTING STAFF

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.

RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry.

T. LYTTLETON LYON, Agronomy.

H. J. WEBBER, Plant Biology.

B. M. DUGGAR, Plan^ Physiology.
MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.
GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.
JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy.

JA^IES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry.
ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation.
W. A. STOCKING, Jr., Dairy Bacteriology.
HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.
G. F. WARREN, Agronomy.
LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.
CHARLES S. WILSON, Horticulture.
M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.
CPIARLES F. CLARK, Agronomy.
JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry.
CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology.
J. B. NORTON, Plant Biology.

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry.
P. J. ANTIITE, Farm Crops.

D. REDDICK. Plant Pathology.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New
York State who request them.

174

I. SPRAYING.

JOHN CRAIG.

The " Spray Calendar " originated at the Cornell Agricultural Ex-
periment Station. In 1894, Prof. M. V. Slingerlands devised the first
tabular calendar arrangement of spraying suggestions; this was printed
and used at Farmers' Institutes. In February 1895, this Experiment
Station published a " Spray Calendar " prepared by E. G. Lodeman, late
instructor in the Department of Horticulture. Since that time, the spray
calendar has appeared in many forms and under the authority of many
writers and institutions. The Cornell publication has been changed from
the chart to the pamphlet form.

Every year there is a distinct demand for the type of information
furnished by this calendar. Fruit-growers and farmers realize more clearly
when planting season comes that success depends as much upon the ap-
plication of intelligent methods to the combating of plant parasites as upon
the management of the soil.

The Meed of Spraying. '

The annual loss arising from the. incursions of destructive insects in
the United States exceed by many times the yearly output of all the
gold mines in the United States. The reduction in the value of the apple
crop of New York State due to insect injury, cannot be less than thirty
per cent per year. This is a heavy tax on the fruit-grower. The injury,
however, could be lessened at least fifty per cent by an expenditure of
not exceeding two per cent on the value of an average apple crop. The
need for spraying is therefore evident. This need will probably increase
as time goes on.

The Principles of Spraying.

Plants, unlike animals, are not cured of diseases by medical treat-
ment. Moreover, they cannot be made immune to insect or fungous
attacks by previous treatment. We aim by spraying to protect plants
from two classes of enemies, insects and fungi. We merely protect
plants ; wc do not cure them. How are they protected ? By covering
the foliage with a medium in which the fungus will not grow, in the case

17s

176

Bulletin 252.

of the plant parasite ; by poisoning the leaf-eating insect, or killing the
sucking insect with something which destroys its body, in the case of
insects.

Cornell spray calendars have stated that spraying is a type of
orchard insurance. Growers ask: Shall I spray when I have little or
no fruit ? The answer is : Yes, by all means. Insure for your trees
a crop of healthy leaves, so that wood may be grown and fruit buds
developed. This is the best way to secure a crop the following year.
The man who sprays year in and year out insures his crop against standard

enemies, and to a large de-
gree against epidemics, and
tends to lessen the numbers
of his staple insect foes.

Hoiu to Spray.

First, know the enemy.

Study the crops you are

growing, and you will learn

to recognize the parasites

that attack them. Learn

the feeding habits of these

and the principal facts of

their life-history. Then

study tlie remedy, under-

^. ^, , , , , ^, . . stand its principles — how

Fig. IJ5. Slugs of the potato hecilc. Chemmg insects. . xt

It acts. JNext, secure the

appliance which seems best adapted to your needs. Prepare your spray
mixture carefully, and apply it thoroughly. Next to timeliness, thor-
oughness is of prime importance. Hundreds of fruit-growers and farmers
waste time, energy and material by indiscriminate and hasty squirting
of spray mixtures over fruit trees and farm crops. Remember that the
principle is protection, and that the plant is protected only when it is
completely covered. Some insects must be hit to be killed. Do not
spray, therefore, unless you do the work thoroughly for you will disgust
yourself and destroy your neighbor's faith in the treatment. Spraying
is not pleasant work but fruit-growers and farmers must accept the situation
and make the best of it.

In the succeeding pages of this bulletin, the subjects of formulas,
machinery, insects and diseases are treated. Each division has been

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases. 177

prepared by an authority in that particular field. Study and follow the
directions carefully, apply the remedies in time and with thoroughness,
and in case of failure or difficulty write to the Cornell Agricultural
Experiment Station for assistance.

11. INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL.

M. V. SLINGERLAND and C. R. CROSBY.

For purposes of control, insects are divided into two great classes:

A. Chezving insects, or those having jaws by means of which they
bite off and eat portions of the tissues of the plant. Examples : Potato
beetle, (Fig. 145) canker-worm and codling-moth caterpillar.

B. Sucking insects, or those furnished with a beak containing four
bristles united into a slender tube. The bristles are inserted into the
plant and through them the insects
suck out the sap. Examples : Squash
stink-bug, San Jose scale and plant-
lice (Fig. 146).

Chewing insects are usually

controlled by applying to their

food poisons such as Paris green,

arsenate of lead or hellebore.

Sticking insects cannot be reached

^1 . J ^ 1 I -11 1 L Fig- 146. A plant-louse, one of the suck-

in this way and must be killed by j„^ -^^^^^^^ showing the beak.

a direct application of contact

insecticides, such as soaps, oils or othef substances. In fighting sucking

insects, thorough and skillful work is required since every individual

insect must be hit by the spray, while in the case of chewing insects,

it is merely necessary to apply the poison thoroughly to the food-plant.

APPLE.

The small brown caterpillars with a black head devour the
Bud-moth. tender leaves and flowers of the opening buds in early spring.

Make two applications of either i lb. Paris green or 4 lbs. arsenate
of lead in 100 gals, of water; the first when the leaf-tips appear and the second
just before the blossoms open. If necessary, spray again after the blossoms fall.
For use with Borcdaux, see apple scab, Cornell Bulletin 107.

These caterpillars are small measuring-worms or loopcrs that
Canker-worms, defoliate the trees in May and June. The female moths are

wingless and in late fall or early spring crawl up the trunks of
the trees to lay their eggs on the branches. Spray thoroughly once or twice, before
the blossoms open, with i lb. Paris green or 4 lbs. arsenate of lead in 100 gals, of

178

Bulletin 252.

water. Repeat the application after the blossoms fall. Prevent the ascent of the
wingless females by means of sticky bands or wire-screen traps.

This is the pinkish caterpillar which causes a large proportion

Codling-moth, of wormy apples. The eggs are laid by a small moth on the

(Fig. 147) leaves and skin of the fruit.

Most of the caterpillars enter
the apple at the blossom end. When the petals fall
the calyx is open (Fig. 148), and this is the time to
spray. The calyx soon closes and keeps the poison
inside ready for the young caterpillar's first meal
(Fig. 149). After the calyx has closed, it is too
late to spray efifectively. The caterpillars become
full grown in July and August, leave the fruit,
crawl down on the trunk, and there most of them
spin cocoons under the loose bark. In most parts
of the country there are two broods annually.

Immediately after the blossoms fall spray
with I lb. Paris green or 4 lbs. arsenate of lead

in 100 gals, of water. Repeat the application 7 to 10 days later. For use with
Bordeaux see apple scab. Use burlap bands on trunks, killing all caterpillars

Fi£

147. Codling-moth cater-
pillar in the apple.

Fig. 148. Just right to spray. Tzco
apples from which the petals have just
fallen. Note that calyx lobes are zi.'idcly
spread.

Fig. 149. Almost too late to spray
effectively. Note that the calyx lobes
are nearly together.

J^Sg of codling-moth on young apple.

under them every ten days from July 1st, to August rst, and once later before

w'nter. Cornell Bulletin 142.

A 1 . The small white maggots make brownish winding burrows in

Apple-maggot ,„,..,. .... , , - ,,

44 -n •^ J the flesh of the fruit, particularlv m summer and carlv lall var-
or Railroad- ■ ,• t^, ■ • ^ ' , ' , , , /,

,, letics. i his nisect cannot be reached bv a spray as the parent

fly inserts her eggs under the skin of the apple, \\'hen full-

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

179

grown the maggot leaves the fruit, passes into the ground and there transforms
inside a tough, leathery case. Cultivation has been found to be of no value as a
means of control. The only effective treatment is to pick up all windfalls every
two or three days and either to feed them out or to bury them deeply, thus killing
the maggots.

The small caterpillars live in pistol — or cigar-shaped cases,
Case-bearers, about i inch long, that they carry around with them. They

appear in spring on the opening buds at the same time as the
bud-moth and may be controlled by the same means. Cornell Bulletins 93 and 124.

This '^cale is nearly circular in outline and about the size of a pin
San Jose scale, liead (Fig. 150). When abundant it forms a crust on the

branches and causes small red spots on the fruit. It nuiltiplies
with marvelous rapidity, there being three or four broods annually and each mother
scale may give birth to several hundred young. The young are born alive and

San Jose Scale.

Scurfy Scale.

Oyster Shell Scale,

Fig. 150. The three common scales infesting the apple.

breeding continues until late autumn when all stages are killed by the cold
weather except the tiny half-grown, black -scales many of which hibernate safely.
Spray thoroughly in the fall after the leaves drop, or early in the spring be-
fore growth begins, with lime-sulphur wash, or miscible oil, i gal. in 10 gals, of
water. When badly infested make two applications, one in the fall and another in
the spring. In case of large old trees, 25% crude oil emulsion should be applied
just as the buds are swelling. Geneva Bulletins 262, 296 and Circular 9.
/-\.^^„a.p_ eUpii This is an elongate scale, g inch in length, resembling an oyster
1 shell in shape and often encrusting the bark. It hiber-

/p- * , nates as minute white eggs under the old scales. The eggs
hatch during the latter part of May or in June, the date depend-
ing on the season. After they hatch, the young may be seen as tiny whitish lice
crawling about on the bark. When these young appear spray with kerosene
emulsion, diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil or any good soap, i lb. in 4 or
5 gals, of water.

i8o Bulletin 252.

This whitish pear-shaped scale, about I inch in length, often
Scurfy scale, encrusts the bark, giving it a scurfy appearance. It hiber-
(Fig. 150.) nates as purplish eggs under the old scales. Spray as recom-
mended for oyster-shell scale.

The presence of this minute mite is indicated by small irregular

Leaf brownish blisters on the leaves. Spray in late fall or early

blister-mite, spring with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 5

parts of water, or miscible oil, i gal. in 10 gals.

of water. Geneva Bulletin 283.

Round-headed The only practicable method of control is to dig

borer, out the borers or to kill them with a wire.

The insect hibernates in the egg stage. The
Apple tent- eggs are glued in ring-like brownish masses
caterpillar. (Fig- 151) around the smaller twigs where they
may be easily found and destroyed. . The cater-
pillars appear in early spring, devour the tender leaves, and build Fig. 151. Egg-
unsightly nests on the smaller branches. This pest is usually con- ringof apple
trolled by the treatment recommended for the codling-moth. De-
stroy the nests by burning or by wiping out when small.

tent -cater-
pillar.

PLUM AND PRUNE.

The adult is a small snout-beetle (Fig. 152) that inserts its eggs
Plum under the skin of the fruit and then makes a characteristic

CUrculio. crescent-shaped cut beneath it. The
grub feeds within the fruit and
causes it to drop. When full grown it enters the
ground, changes in late summer to the beetle, which
finally goes into hibernation in sheltered places. Spray
just after blossoms fall with arsenate of lead, 6 to 8 lbs.
in 100 gals, of water, and repeat the application in
about a week. After the fruit has set, jar the trees
daily over a sheet or curculio-catcher and destroy the pjg. jr2 Beetle of plum
beetles. Cornell Bulletin 235. curculio. Enlarged.

CHERRY.

Early in the season these dark brown plant-lie*^ curl the term-
inal leaves, especially of sweet cherries. Spray with kerosene
ApniS. emulsion diluted with 6 parts of water. Repeat the applica-

tion if necessary.
Plum curculio. See under plum.

QUINCE.

This curculio is somewhat larger than that infesting the plum

Quince and differs is its life-historj-. The grul^s leave the fruits in the

curculio. f^ll <i"<:l enter the ground where they hibernate and transform

to adults the next May, June or July, depending on the season.

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

i8i

When the adults appear jar them from the tree onto sheets or curculio-catchers
and destroy them. To determine when they appear jar a few trees daily, begin-
ning the latter part of May. Cornell Bulletin 148.
San Jose scale. Sec under APPLE.
Round-headed apple-tree borer. See under apple.

Peach borer.

PEACH AND APRICOT

The adult is a clear-wing
moth. The larva burrows
just under the bark near
or beneath the surface of
the ground ; its presence is indicated by a
gummy mass at the base of the tree (Fig.
153). Dig out the borers in June and
mound up the trees. At the same time,
spply gas-tar or coal-tar to the trunk from
the roots up to a foot or more above the
surface of the ground. Cornell Bulletins
176 and 192.

Plum curculio. See under plum.
San Jose scale. See under apple.

Pear psylla.

Fig. 153. Peach borer.

PEAR.

Tliese minute, yellowish,

sects are often found

flat-bodied, sucking in-
working in the axils of
the leaves and fruit early in the season.
They develop into minute, cicada-like
jumping-lice. The young psyllas secrete a

large quantity of honey-dew in which a peculiar black fungus grows, giving the
bark a characteristic sooty appearance. There may be four broods annually and
the trees are often seriously injured. After the blossoms fall, spray with kerosene
emulsion, diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil soap, i lb. in 4 or 5 gals, of
water. Repeat the applica-
tion at intervals of from 3
to 7 days until the insects
are under control. Cornell
Bulletin loS.

See under

Leaf blister- apple. On

mite. pears, the

lime-sul-
phur wash has also been
found efifective.

See under
San Jose scale. ^pp^E.

Codling-moth.

*» APPLE.

Fig. 154. Pear slugs skeletonising the leaf.

l82

Bulletin 252.

These small, slimy, slug-like, dark green larvae (Fig. 154)
Pear slug. skeletonize the leaves in June, and a second brood appears in

August. Spray thoroughly
with I lb. Paris green, or 4 lbs. arsenate of
lead, in 100 gals, of water.

Plant-lice.

Fig. 155. Grape rooi-zvonit.

NURSERY STOCK.

Spray thoroughly or dip the

tips in kerosene emulsion,
diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil
soap, I lb. in 5 gals, of water.

After the trees are dug,
San Jose scale, fumigate with hydrocyanic

;;cid gas, using i ounce of
potassium cyanide for every 100 cubic feet of
space. Continue the fumigation from one-half
to three-quarters of an hour. Do not fumigate
the trees when they are wet, since the presence
of moisture renders them liable to injury.

GRAPE.

The small, shining blue
Flea-beetle or beetles appear in early spring
"Steely-beetle." ^"d eat into the opening

buds. The brown larvae feed on the leaves in May and June.
When buds begin to swell cover them thoroughly with arsenate of lead, 8 lbs. in
100 gals, of water, or when beetles appear, hand-pick them into a pan containing
a little kerosene. To kill the larvae on the leaves from May 15th, to July ist, add
I lb. Paris green or 4 lbs. ar-
senate of lead to every iod gals.
of Bordeaux mixture. See under
BLACK-ROT. Cornell Bulletin 157.

The small
Root-worm, white grubs

(Fig. I S 5 )
feed upon the roots, often kill-
ing the vines in a few years.
The adults are small grayish-
brown beetles that eat peculiar
chain-like holes in the leaves
during July and August. Culti-
vate thoroughly in June especi-
ally close around the vines to
kill tlie pupae in the soil. Spray
thoroughly the latter part of
June with arsenate of lead, 6
lbs. in 100 gals, of water, to kill
the beetles. Repeat the applica-
tion in a week or ten days. Cor-
nell Bulletins 208 and 224, 235. Fig. 156. Currant-worms.

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

183

These small yellowish leaf-hoppers, erroneously called " thrips "
Leaf-hopper, suck the sap from the underside of the leaves causing them to

turn brown and dry up. Spray the underside of the leaves very
tlioroughly with whale-oil soap, i lb. in 10 gals, of water, about July ist, to
kill the young leaf-hoppers. Repeat the application in a week or ten days. Cor-
nell Bulletin 215.

The ungainly, long-legged, grayish beetles occur in sandy

regions and often swarm into vineyards and destroy the blos-
Kose-Ciiaier. joms and foliage. Spra\' thoroughly with arsenate of lead, 10

lbs. in 100 gals, of water. Repeat application if necessary.

RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY.

The greenish, spiny larvae

Saw-fly. ft^cd on the tender leaves in

spring. Spray with Paris
green or arsenate of lead, or apply hellebore.

The larva is a grub that bur-
Cane-borer. rows down through the canes
causing them to die. In lay-
ing her eggs, the adult beetle girdles the tip of
tlie cane with a ring of punctures causing it
to wither and droop. In midsummer cut off
and destroy the drooping tips.

CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY.

In the spring the small green.
Currant-worm, black-spotted larvae (Fig. 156;
feed on the foliage, beginning
their work on the lower leaves. A second
brood occurs in early summer. When worms first
appear, spray with i lb. Paris green or 4 lbs.
arsenate of lead in 100 gals, of water. Ordi-
narily the poison should be combined with Bor-
deaux. See CURRANT LEAF-SPOT. After fruit is Fig. 157. Rose aphis or plant-
half grown use hellebore. ouse.

ROSE.
The green plant-lice (Fig. 157) usually work on the buds, and
Aphis and the yellow leaf-hoppers feed on the leaves. Spray, whenever
leaf-hopper, necessar}-, with kerosene emul-
sion, diluted with 6 parts of
water, or whale-oil or any good soap, i lb. in 5 or
6 gals, of water.

Rose-chafer. See under grape.
Rose-slug. See under pear slug.

STRAWBERRY.

These large curved white grubs

White grubs. (Fig. 15S) are the larvae of

the common June beetles.

Fig. 158. White grub.

1 84

Bulletin 252.

They live in the ground feeding on the roots of grasses, weeds, etc. Dig out
grubs from benekth infested plants. Thorough early fall cultivation of land
intended for planting will destroy many of the pupae.

POTATO.

The yellow striped beetle emerges from hibernation in the

Colorado spring and lays masses of orange eggs on the underside of the

potato-beetle, leaves. The larvae are known as " slugs " and " soft-shells "

(Fig. 145) and cause most of the injury to the vines. Spray

with Paris green 2 lbs. in ico gals, of water or arsenate of soda combined with

Bordeaux mixture. It may sometimes be necessary to use a greater strength of

the poison, particularly on the older "slugs."

These small black beetles riddle the leaves with small holes and
cause them to die. Bordeaux mixture as applied for potato
Flea-beetles, ijiight protects the plants by making them distasteful to the
beetles. See under potato blight.

CUCUMBER, MELON AND SQUASH.

These yellow, black-striped beetles appear in numbers and

Striped CUCUm- attack the plants as soon as they are up. Plant .early squashes

ber-beetle. as a trap-crop around the field. Protect the vines with screens

until they begin to run, or keep them covered with Bordeaux

mixture, thus making them distasteful to the beetles.

Squash vines are frequently

Squash-vine killed by a white caterpillar,

borer. which burrows in the stem

near the base of the plant.

Plant a few early squashes between rows of

the late varieties as a trap-crop. As soon as

the early crop is harvested, remove and burn

the vines. When the vines are long enough,

cover them at the joints with earth in order to

develop secondary root systems for the plant in

case the main stem is injured.

These dark green plant-lice
Aphis. feed on the undersides of the

leaves causing them to curl
and wither. Spray with kerosene emulsion
diluted with 6 parts of water. It is necessary
thoroughly to cover the underside of the leaves ;
the sprayer, therefore, must be fitted with an
upturned nozzle. Burn the vines as soon as the
crop is harvested and keep down all weeds.

The rusty-black adult emerges from hibernation in the spring

Squash and lays its eggs on the underside of the leaves. The nymphs

stink-bug. ^^'ck the sap from the leaves and stalks causing serious injury.

Trap the adults under boards in the spring. Examine the

leaves for the smooth shining brownish eggs and destroy them. The young

nyriiphs may be killed with kerosene emulsion.

:^

Fig. 159. Imported cabbage-
u'oniis.

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

185

CABBAGE AND CAULIFLOWER.

The green caterpillars (Fig. 159) hatch from eggs laid by the

Cabbage-worm. common white butterfl}-. There are several broods every sea-
son. If plants are not heading, spray with kerosene emulsion

or with Paris green to which the sticker has been added. If heading, apply

hellebore.

These small mealy plant-lice are especially troublesome during
cool, dry seasons when their natural enemies are less active.

Cabbage aphis. Before the plants begin to head, spray with kerosene emulsion
diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil soap, i lb. in 6 gals,
of water.

The white maggots that feed on the roots (Fig. 160) hatch
from eggs laid by a small fly somewhat resembling the com-
mon house fly, near the plant at the surface of the ground.
Hollow out the earth slightly around every plant and freely

apply carbolic acid emulsion diluted with 30 parts of water. Begin the treatment

early, a day or two after the plants are up or the next day after they are set out.

Repeat the application every 7 to 10 days until the latter part of Alay. It has also

Cabbage
root-maggot.

Fig. 160. Cabbage rooi-maggots.

been found practicable to protect the plants by the use of tightly fitting cards
cut from tarred paper. Cornell Bulletin 78.

ONION.

Onion tops frequently turn white and die as the result of the
Onion thrips. feeding punctures caused by these minute yellowish insects.

The injury is known as "white blast." Spray thoroughly with
kerosene emulsion diluted with 6 parts water, or whale-oil soap, i lb. in 4 gals,
of water.
Onion maggot. For treatment see cabbage root-maggot.

i86 Bulletin 252.

GREENHOUSE INSECTS.

The nymphs are small greenish, scale-like insects found on
White-fly. the underside of the leaves ; the adults are minute, white,
mealy winged flies. Spray with kerosene emulsion or whale-
oil soap; or if infesting cucumbers or tomatoes, fumigate over night with hydro-
cyanic acid gas, using i oz. of potassium cyanide to each 1000 cubic feet of space.
Spray with kerosene emulsion when practicable, or fumigate
Green aphis, with one of the tobacco preparations. If on violets, fumigate,
using 3/2 to ^ oz. potassium cyanide for every 1000 cu. ft. of
space and leave the gas in from ^ to i hour.

This plant-louse is harder to kill than the green aphis, but
JsIaCK apnis. j^^^^y i^g controlled by the same methods.

Red-spider. Syringe off the plants with clear water two or three times a
week, taking care not to drench the beds.

Violets grown under glass are often greatly injured by a very
Violet gall-fly.small maggot, which causes the edges of the leaves to curl,
turn yellowish and die. The adult is a very minute fly resem-
bling a mosquito. Pick off and destroy infested leaves as soon
as discovered. Fumigation is not advised for this insect or for red-spider.

III. INSECTICIDES.

M. V. SLINGERLAND AND C. R. CROSBY.

This can be applied in a stronger mixture than other arsenical

Arsenate poisons without injuring the foliage. It is, therefore, much

of lead. tiscd against beetles and other insects that are hard to poison.

It comes in the form of a paste and should be mixed thoroughly

with a small amount of water before placing in the sprayer, else the nozzles will

clog. Arsenate of lead and Bordeaux mixture can be combined without lessening

the value of either. It is used in strengths varying from 4 to 10 lbs. per 100 gals.,

depending on the kind of insect to be killed.

This is used in varying strengths, depending on the insect to be
Paris green, controlled and the kind of plant treated. Mix the Paris green
into a paste and then add to the water. Keep the mixture
thoroughly agitated while spraying. If for use on fruit trees, add i lb. of quick
lime for every jiound of Paris green to prevent burning the foliage. For potatoes
it is frequently used alone, but it is much safer to use the lime. Paris green
and Bordeaux mixture may be combined without lessening the value of either
and the caustic action of the arsenic is prevented.

(For use with Bordeaux mixture only). Sal soda 2 lbs. ; water
Arsenite l gal- ; arsenic i lb. Mix the white arsenic into a paste and

of soda. then add the sal soda and water and boil until dissolved. Add
water to replace any that has boiled away so that i gallon of
stock solution is the result. Use i quart of this stock solution to 50 gallons of
Bordeaux mixture for fruit trees. Make sure there is enough lime in the Bor-
deaux mixture to prevent the caustic action of the arsenic.

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases. 187

(For use without Bordeaux mixture). Sal soda, i lb., water,

Arsenite i gal- white arsenic, i lb., quick lime, 2 lbs. Dissolve the

of lime. white arsenic with the water and sal soda as above and

use this solution while hot to slake the 2 lbs. of lime. Add

enough water to make 2 gallons. Use 2 quarts of this stock solution in 50

gallons of water.

For wet application, use fresh white hellebore, i oz., water, 2
Hellebore. or 3 gals. For dry application, use hellebore, i lb., flour or air-
slaked lime, 5 lbs. This is a white, yellowish powder made
from the roots of the white hellebore plant. It loses its strength after a time
and should be used fresh. It is used as a substitute for the arsenical poisons on
plants or fruits soon to be eaten.

Hard, soft or whale-oil soap, ^ lb., water, i gal, kerosene,

Kerosene 2 gals. Dissolve the soap in hot water; remove from the fire

emulsion. while still hot .nnd add the kerosene. Pump the liquid back

into itself for five or ten minutes or until it becomes a creamy

mass. If properly made the oil will not separate out on cooling.

For use on dormant trees, dilute with from 5 to 7 parts of water. For killing
plant-lice on foliage dilute with from 10 to 15 parts of water. Crude oil emulsion
is made in the same way by substituting crude oil in place of kerosene. The
strength of oil emulsions are frequently indicated by the percentage of oil in the
diluted liquid :

For a 10% emulsion add 17 gals, of water to 3 gals, stock emulsion.

For a 15% emulsion add loi gals, of water to 3 gals, stock emulsion.

For a 20% emulsion add 7 gals, of water to 3 gals, stock emulsion.

For a 25% emulsion add 5 gals, of water to 3 gals, stock emulsion.

Soap, I lb. ; water, i gal. ; crude carbolic acid, i pint. Dissolve
Carbolic acid the soap in hot water, add the carbolic acid and agitate into an
emulsion. emulsion. For use against root-maggots, dilute with 30 parts
of water.

This is a valuable insecticide and is used in several forms. As

Tobacco. a dast it is used extensively in greenhouses for plant-lice, and in

nurseries and about apple trees for the woolly aphis. Tobacco

decoction is made by steeping or soaking the stems in water. It is often used as

a spray against plant-lice. Tobacco in the form of extracts, punks and poi^'ders is

sold under various trade names for use in fumigating greenhouses.

An effective insecticide for plant-lice is zvhalc-oil soap. Dis-

„ solve in hot water and dilute so as to obtain one pound of soap

" ■ to every five or seven gallons of water. This strength is

effective against plant-lice. It should be applied in stronger

.solutions, however, for scale insects. Home-made soaps and good laundry soaps,

L..e ivory soap, are often as effective as whale-oil soap.

There are now on the market a number of preparations of

,_. ., , ., petroleum and other oils intended primarily for use against the

Miscible oils, o T ' 1 T-! • j-1 .n T 1 * I

San Jose scale. They mix readny with cold water and are im-
mediately ready for use. While quickly prepared, easily applied
and generally effective, they cost considerably more than lime-sulfur wash. They
are, however, less corrosive to the pumps and more ageeable to use. They are
especially valuable to the man with only a few trees or shrubs who would not care

1 88 Bulletin 252.

to go to the trouble and expense to make up the lime-sulfur wash. They should
be diluted with not more than 10 or 12 parts of water. Use only on dormant trees.

A good miscible oil can be made at home but it involves considerable labor and
unless proper grades of the different materials are used there will be difficulty in
combining them. Manufacturers of soaps and oils are now properly combining
these materials and offering the resulting emulsifiers at reasonable prices that are
considerably less than the cost of the proprietary miscible oils.
Quicklime, 20 lbs.
Lime and Sulfur (flour or flowers) 15 lbs.
sulfur wash. Water, 50 gals.

The lime and sulfur must be thoroughly boiled. An iron kettle
is often convenient for the work. Proceed as follows : Place the lime in the kettle.
Add hot water gradually in sufficient quantity to produce the most rapid slaking of
the lime. When the lime begins to slake, add the sulfur and stir together. If con-
venient keep the mixture covered with burlap to save the heat. After slaking has
ceased, add more water and boil the mixture one hour. As the sulfur goes into
solution, a rich orange red or dark green color will appear. After boiling suffici-
ently, add water to the required amount and strain into the spray tank. The wash
is most effective when applied warm, but may be applied cold. If one has access to
a steam boiler, boiling with steam is more convenient and satisfactory. Barrels may
be used for holding the mixture, and the steam applied by running a pipe or
rubber hose into the mixture. Proceed in the same manner as for boiling in the
kettle until the lime is slaked, when the steam may be turned on. Continue boil-
ing for 45 minutes to an hour, or more if necessary to get the sulfur well dissolved.

This mixture can be applied safely only when the trees are dormant, — !ate in
the autumn after the leaves have fallen, or early in the spring before the buds
swell. It is mainly an insecticide for San Jose scale, although it has considerable
value as a fungicide for certain diseases, like the peach leaf-curl. As the San
Jose scale is not killed unless the solution comes in contact with it, great care
should be exercised to completely cover the branches.

Proprietary lime-sulfur washes arc now on the market and are reported
effective when used at the rate of i gallon of the wash to not more than 8 or 9
gallons of water.

Hydrocyanic acid gas is a deadly poison and the greatest care is
Fumigation required in its use. Always use 98 to 100% pure potassium
with hydrocy- cyanide and a good grade of commercial sulphuric acid. The
anic acid gas. chemicals are always combined in the following proportion :
Potassium cyanide, I oz. ; sulphuric acid, 2 fluid ozs. ; water, 4
fluid ozs. Always use an earthen dish, pour in the water first, and add the sulfuric
acid to it. Put the required amount of cyanide in a thin paper bag and when all
is ready, drop it into the liquid and leave the room immediately. For mills and
dwellings, use i oz. of cyanide for every 100 cubic feet of space. Make the doors
and windows as tight as possible by pasting strips of paper over the cracks. Re-
move the silver-ware and food, and if brass and nickel work cannot be removed
cover with vaseline. Place the proper amount of the acid and water for every
room in 2-gallon jars. Use two or more in large rooms or halls. Weigh out
the potassium cyanide in paper bags and place them near the jars. When all is
ready, drop the cyanide into the jars, beginning on the top floors, since the fumes
are lighter than air. In large buildings, it is frequently necessary to suspend the

Insect Pests and Plant Dise.\ses.

189

bags of cyanide over the jars by cords running through screw eyes and all leading
to a place near the door. By cutting all the cords at once the cyanide will be
lowered into the jars and the operator may escape without injury. Let the fumiga-
tion continue all night, locking all outside doors and placing danger signs on the
house.

No general formula can be given for fumigating the different

_ . . c kinds of plants grown in greenhouses, as the species and varieties

Fumisfation of ,.^^ ^, . \, . , -f.^ , . , \ ,.. ^ , r .u

greenhouses

differ greatly in their ability to withstand the effects of the gas.

Ferns and roses are very susceptible to injury, and fumigation

if attempted at all should be performed with great caution.

Fumigation will not kill insect eggs and thus must be repeated when the new brood

appears. Fumigate only at night when there is no wind. Have the house as dry

as possible a:nd the temperature as near 60° as practicable.

IV. THE CONTROL OF PLANT DISEASES.

H. H. WHETZEL AND F. C. STEWART.

ALFALFA.

This disease causes

Dodder. small areas of alfalfa

to die. Around the

of these areas the ground is

covered with a tangled mat of yellow

threads that twine closely about the

plants and kill them (Fig. 161).

Infested spots should be closely

mowed; the stubble sprinkled with

kerosene, covered with dry hay and

burned. Only seed free from dodder

should be used. Samples of seed may

b.^ sent the Geneva Experiment Sta-
tion to be examined for dodder. Al-
falfa seed can be cleaned by sifting

through 20 X 20 mesh sieve made of No.

34 wire. See Geneva Circular No. 8.
This is the most
Leaf-spot. serious fungous dis-
ease of the crop in

the State. It causes the leaves to be-

cO!ne spotted and yellow and to fall pre-
maturely. New seeding when badly

diseased, should be topped, but never

mowed. closely. When older fields are

attacked, the hay should be cut a few

days early to avoid loss of leaves and

to permit a new growth that will usually outgrow the trouble

Fig. 161. Dodder on alfalfa, shoivmg the
slender cord-like stems and the bunches
of small zvhitc UoziJers.

(Fig. 162.)

190

Bulletin 252.

Scab.

Fig. 162. Alfalfa leaf -spot.

APPLE.

Commonly known among growers as " the fungus." Usually
most evident on the fruit. Spray with Bordeaux 5--5"50 o^
3-3-50; first, just before the blossoms open; second, just as

the blossoms fall; third, 10 to 14 days after

the hlossoms fall. The second spraying

seems to be the most important. Spray

thoroughly. For the use of insect poisons

with Bordeaux mixture, see codling- moth

and BUD-MOTH. See also Cornell Bulle-
tins 84 and 226. (Fig. 163.)

This is the same as Pear
Fire-blight, blight. It usually makes
itself manifest on the ap-
ple trees in three forms, blossom blight,

twig blight, and blight cankers on limbs and

body (Fig. 164). This disease is caused by

bacteria which are distributed by bees and

flies and is not controlled by spraying. Cut-
ting out and destroying the diseased parts

are the chief measures to be taken. Cut out

blighted twigs in young trees as fast as they appear. The bacteria of this disease

are carried over winter in cankers on the main limbs and bodies of the trees.

Remove all sucli cankers with sharp knife cutting well into the healthy bark and

wash the wound with corrosive sublimate, i part

to loco of water. Then paint the wound with

heavy lead oil paint. See Cornell Bulletin, 236.

Destroy or clean up all old pear and apple tree's

about the premises because such trees harbor

the disease.

This important fungous dis-
ease should not be confused
with the "blight canker."
Cankers arc usually found on
the main limbs of old trees,

black and rough (Fig. 165). Canker is very

common on Twenty Ounce. Since the fungus

enters through wounds, avoid breaking the bark.

All wounds made in pruning should be promptly

painted over. Cut out cankers and treat as for

"blight cankers." Spray early in spring before

the buds start with Bordeaux, 10-10-50, or soak the body and the limbs when

making first application for scab. See Geneva Bulletins 163 and 185.

ASPARAGUS.

The most common and destructive disease of asparagus rust

Rust. produces reddish or black pustules on the stems and branches.

Late in the fall, burn all affected plants. Fertilize liberally and

cultivate thoroughly. During the cutting season, permit no plants to mature and

New York

apple-tree

canker.

Fig. 163. Apple-scab.

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

191

cut all wild asparagus plants in vicinity once a week. Rust may be partially con-
trolled by spraying with Bordeaux, 5-5-50 containing a sticker of resin-sal soda
soap (See page 202), but it is a difficult and expensive operation and probably
not profitable except on large acreage. Begin spraying after cutting as soon as
new shoots are 8 to 10 inches high and repeat once or twice a week until about
September 15. See Geneva Bulletin 188. Dusting with sulfur has proved effective
in California. See California Bulletins 165 and 172. Plant 'the varieties least
aft'ected by rust.

BEANS.

A fungous disease com-
Anthracnose monly known among grow-
er pod-spot, ers as "rust." It is carried
over from one season to
another in the seed. Plant clean seed
obtained by selecting pods free from the
diseased spots. Hand-sorting of seed, and
seed treatment will not control this disease.
When beans can be thoroughly hand-sprayed
Bordeaux, 5-5-50, will control the trouble.
Spray, first, just wjien the plants break
through the ground ; second, when first pair
of leaves are expanded; third, when the pods
have set. See Cornell Bulletin 239, also New
Jersey Bulletin 151. (Fig. 166.)

A bacterial disease. Like
Blight. the anthracnose, blight is

carried over in the seed. It
is difficult to control. It affects the leaves
chiefly, forming large dead spots. Spraying
with Bordeaux, as for anthracnose, is said
to reduce the injury. See Cornell Bulletin
239 and New Jersey Bulletin 151.

•">:,

Fig. 164. Blight canker of apple.

CABBAGE — CAULIFLOWER.

In this bacterial disease, bacteria get into the sap-tubes of the

Black-rot. leaves clogging them and turning them black ; the plants drop

their leaves and fail to head. Practice crop rotation ; soak seed

15 minutes in a solution made by dissolving one corrosive sublimate tablet

in a pint of water. Tablets may be bought at drug stores. See Geneva

Bulk-tins 232 and 251.

This is a slime mold disease. The parasite lives in the soil.
Club-root or Practice crop rotation. Set only Iiealthy plants. Do not use
club-foot. manure containing cabbage refuse. If necessary to use in-
fested land apply good stone lime, 2 to 5 tons per acre. Apply
at least as early as the autumn before planting; two to four years is better.
Lime the seedbed in same manner. See New Jersey Bulletin 98. This disease is
sometimes confused with cabbage maggots, which see. (Fig. 167.)

192

Bulletin 252.

CARNATION.

The cause of this disease is a soil fungus. The plants wilt

Rhizoctonia, suddenly. The stem is affected with soft rot at or below the

stem-rot. surface of the soil. In the field, change location of the plants

frequently; annually, if possible. In the benches, use sterilized
soil or at least use fresh soil. After transplanting into
the greenhouse, keep the temperature as low as
possible until the plants become established. Stir the
soil frequently. Avoid over-watering. See Geneva
Bulletin 186.

This -is a dry rot. Plants affected

by this disease die slowly, usually

a branch at a time. The treatment

same as for Rhizoctonia stem-rot.

This disease can be recognized by

the brown, powdery pustules on the

stem and leaves. Plant only the
varieties least afifected by it. Take cuttings only from
healthy plants. Spray (in the held, once a week; in
the greenhouse, once in two weeks) with copper
sulfate, I lb. to 20 gals, of water. Keep the greenhouse
air as dry and cool as is compatible with good growth.
Keep the foliage free from moisture. Train the plants
so as to secure a free circulation of air among them.
See Geneva Bulletin too.

Round, grayish spots on the stem and
Leaf-spot. leaves are evidences of this disease.

Treatment is the same as for rust. f^-

Fusarium,
stem-rot.

Rust.

CELERY.

Cerospora,
leaf-blight.

iw appears in tiie ^'""^^
)ccomes destructive''

This is sometimes known as "early

blight." It often

seed-bed and b

early in the summer. It is favored
by hot weather, either wet or dry. Spray with am- '
moniacal copper carbonate, 6-3-45, making abtut five
or eight applications beginning while the plants are \-.. i

still in the seeb-bed. Bordeaux, 5-5-50, may be used ^. ^ ,, ,. ,

( ,\ V V ^- c t^ \ ^ Fig. 165. A'ew y ork apple-

tor the earlier application. Spray often enough to ° '^. . ,

' ^ -^ . 1) ce canker.

keep new growths of leaves covered ; destroy diseased
plants and refuse. See Cornell Bulletin 132.

Leaf-blight is a fungous disease appearing late in the season.
Septoria, leaf- It is often destructive after celery is stored. The same treat-
blight or ment as for "early blight" is used except that spraying should
"late blight." he continued up to the time the plants are harvested. See
Cornell Bulletin 132. Well-drained celery fields, half-shaded
do not seem to suffer from either blight.

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

193

CHERRY.

A fungus, the spores of which are carried from tree to tree by

Black-knot, the wind and thus spread the infection is the cause of this

disease. The same fungus also afifects plums. Cut out and

burn all knots as soon as discovered. See that the knots are removed from all

plums and cherry trees in the neighborhood. See Cornell Bulletin 81.

Produced by the same fungus that causes the brown rot of
Brown-rot piunis and peaches. See Cornell Bulletin 98, pp. 409-410. See
01 iruit. ^jgQ Geneva Bulletin 98. See page 362.

^ ^^ ■'^

^

^^ ■^

Fig. 166.
Bean an-
thracnose.

Fig. 167. Club-root of cabbage.

This is a fungous disease in which the leaves become thickly
Leaf spot. covered with reddish or brown spots and fall prematurely;
badly affected trees winterkill. Often, the dead spots drop out
leaving clear-cut holes. Spray with Bordeaux, 5-5-50. Make four applications;
first, just before blossoms open: second, when fruit is free from calyx; third,
two weeks later ; fourth, two weeks after third. See Michigan Board Agriculture
Report 1906, p. 103.

It attacks leaves at the tip of the growing shoots and is often
Powdery serious on nursery stock. The leaves curl and show white
mildew. mealy growth of the fungus. Dust heavily with sulfur or spray

with potassium sulfide, i oz. to 3 gals, water.

194

Bulletin 2^2.

CHRYSANTHEMUM.

This is also a fungous disease. Spray with Bordeaux, 5-5-50,
Septoria, ever,- ten days or often enough to protect new foliage. Am-
leaf-spot. moniacal copper carbonate maj- be used but it is not so effec-
tive. See Geneva Annual Report 1892, p. 558.
Rust. Treat as for leaf-spot. Avoid wetting foliage when watering.

CUCUMBER.

This is a disease caused by bacteria that get into the sap-tubes

Wilt. of the leaf and stem, clogs and destroys them, causing the

plant to wilt. The bacteria are distributed chiefly by striped

cucumber beetles. Destroy the beetles or drive them away b\- thorough spra^-ing

with Bordeaux, 5-5-50. Gather and destroy all wilted leaves and plants. The

most that can be expected is that the loss may be slightly reduced.

This most serious fungous disease of the cucumber is known

Downy among growers as "the blight." The leaves become mottled

mildew. '^^'ith yellow, show dead spots and then dry up. Spra;,- with

Bordeaux, 5-5-50. Commence spraying when the plants begin

to run and repeat every 10 to 14 days throughout the season. See Geneva

Bulletins 119 and 156.

V

CURRANT.

This is caused by two

Leaf-spots andor three different fungi,
anthracnose. The leaves becom.e spot-
ted, turn yellow and

fall prematurely. It may be controlled by

three to five sprayings with Bordeaux,

5-5-50, but it is doubtful whether the

disease is sufficiently destructive on the

average to warrant so much expense.

Upon the tirst appearance of currant zcorm

spray 'ix-ith Bordeaux and Paris green (i

lb. to ICO gals, or arsenate of lead, 4

lbs. to 100 gals.). Repeat if a second brood

of worms appears. See Iowa Bulletin 30

and Geneva Bulletin 199. (Fig. 168.)

Very destructive in the Hudson Valley. Canes die suddenly
Cane-blight while loaded with fruit and leaves like those attacked by the
or wilt. cane borer. Caused by a fungus which kills the bark, in

places and discolors the wood. No definite line of treat-
ment has been established, but the following is suggested. Beginning when

the plants are small go over the plantation three or more times every summer

and cut out and burn all canes showing signs of disease. See Geneva Bulletin

1-67, p. 292.

Fig. 168. Currant leaf-spot.

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases. 195

GIXSEXG.

This is the most destructive and common disease of cultivated

Alternaria ginseng. First, spray the surface of the soil thoroughly with

blight. copper sulfate solution, i lb. to 10 gallons, early in the spring

before the plants come through ; second, spray vi^ith Bordeaux,

5~5~50, as soon as the plants begin to break through the soil. Add sticker (see

page 202). Spray repeatedly while the plants are coming through the soil, making

a special effort to spray the stems as it is on these that the disease first becomes

established in the spring. Spray to keep plant thoroughly covered throughout

the season. Spray seed heads thoroughly just after the blossoms fall and again

when the berries are two-thirds grown, to prevent "blast" caused by the Alternaria

fungus. Destroy diseased tops. See Special Crops, Feb. 1907, Vol. 6, Xo. 54, p. 22.

A disease caused by a fungus in the sap-tubes of the root. Wilt

Wilt. is checked by removing the wilted plants as soon as discovered.

See Cornell Bulletin 219.

Root-rots. These are caused by different soil fungi. Favored by wet soggy

soils. Drain the soil thoroughly.

GOOSEBERRY.

The fruit and leaves are covered with a dirty white growth of
Powdery fungus. In setting a new plantation, choose a site where the
mildew. land is well underdrained and where there is a good circulation
of air. Cut away drooping branches. Keep the ground under-
neath free from weeds. Spray with potassium sulphide, i oz. to 2 gals. ; com-
mence when the buds are breaking and repeat every 7 to 10 days until the fruit
is gathered. Powdery mildew is very destructive to the European varieties. See
Geneva Bulletins 133 and 161.

GRAPE.

This is the most destructive fungous disease of grapes in this
Black-rot. state. It is carried over from one season to the next chieflj- in

old rotted berries or "mummies" that fall to the ground or
cling to the vines. Remove all mummies that cling to the arms at trimming time.
Plow earl}', turning under all old mummies and diseased leaves. Rake all refuse
under the vine into the last furrow and cover with the grape hoe. This cannot
be too thoroughly done. The disease is favored b}' wet weather and weeds or
grass in the vineyard. Use surface cultivation and keep down all weeds and grass.
Keep the vines well sprouted ; if necessary' sprout twice. Spray with Bordeaux
mixture, 5-5-50, until the middle of July, after that with ammoniacal copper car-
bonate. The number of sprayings will vary with the season. Alake the first appli-
cation when the third leaf shows. Infections take place with each rain, and occur
throughout the growing season. The foliage should be protected by a coating of
the spray before every rain. The new growth, especially, should be well sprayed.
When the foliage becomes dense the clusters should be sprayed with a "trailer'"
or hand-spraying device, about four applications of Bordeaux mixture and two
of the ammoniacal copper carbonate will be necessary. Apply 80 to 100 gallons
of spray to the acre. Use 100 to 140 lbs. pressure ; use a 1-16 inch hole in the

196

Bulletin 252.

disk of the nozzle. See Cornell Bulletin 254. For use of insecticides in Bor-
deaux, see "steely-beetle."

This is a fungous disease most evident on the leaves making

Downy large brown spots on upper surface with white downy growth

mildew. beneath. It also attacks the green fruit, causing what is known

to growers as "hard white berry." Bordeaux as applied for

BLACK ROT will coutrol this disease.

LETTUCE.
This is a fungous disease often destructive in greenhouses, dis-
Drop or rot. covered by the sudden wilting of the plants. It is completely
controlled by steam steriliza-
tion of the soil to the depth of two inches or
more. If it is not feasible to sterilize the soil,
use fresh soil for every- crop of lettuce. See
Massachusetts Bulletin 69.

MUSKMELON.
This is commonly called-
Downy "blight" and is a very trouble-

mildew, some disease. The leaves show

angular, dead brown spots
then dry up and die; the fruit often fails to
ripen and lacks flavor. It is caused by the same
fungus as is the downy mildew of cucumbers ;
no effective method of control is known. While
Bordeaux has proven effective in controlling
the downy mildew on cucumbers it seems to be
of little value in fighting the same disease on
melons. See Report of Botanist Connecticut
Station, 1904.

Wilt.

This is same as the wilt of
cucumbers ; same treatment is
given.

Fig. 169. Ginseng blight.

OATS.

The most common and de-
Smut. structive disease of oats is

smut, carried over from one
season to the next by fungus spores on the seed. Entirely prevented by treat-
ing the seed oats before planting with a solution of formalin, i pint to 45 or 50
gallons of water. Place the oats on a clean floor and sprinkle on the formalin as
they are shoveled over. Use one gallon to the bushel. Mix the oats thoroughly,
then shovel them into a pile and cover with blankets or canvas. After standing
in the pile from two to four hcjurs the oats, if they are to be drilled should be
spread out to dry; or they may be sown by hand without drying. Use one peck
more seed per acre to allow for swelling* of the grain. Treatment once in three
years is usually sufficient to prevent material loss from smut. See U. S. Farmers
Bulletin 250 and Wisconsin Bulletin iii.

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

197

ONION-.

or blight as it is commonly called is a fungous disease, much

Mildew like the blight of potatoes. Spray with Bordeaux, 5-5-50,

beginning when the plants show three leaves. Repeat every

ten days until crop is harvested. Add one gallon sticker (see page 202) to every

50 gallons of the mixture. It is useless to begin spraying after the disease

appears. See Cornell Bulletin 218.

This can be detected by the black pustules on the leaves and
bulbs. It is troublesome only where onions are grown exten-
sively ; it may attack the seedlings killing them outright, or
may appear on mature bulbs in fall. Onions from sets or those

started in clean soil and transplanted seldom suffer. Practice crop rotation.

Drill into the rows when planting seed, 100 lbs. sulfur and 50 lbs. air-slaked lime

mixed, to the acre. See Geneva Bulletin 182.

Smut.

/' .^ \

PEACH.

is the most serious fungous disease of stone fruits in this state
Brown-rot ^iid one of the most difficult to control. Plant resistant varie-
ties. Prune the trees so as

to let in sunlight and air. Thin the fruit

well. As often as possible pick and destroy

all rotten fruits. In the fall destroy all fruits

remaining on the trees and on the ground.

Spray with Bordeaux mixture before the

buds break. Owing to danger of injuring the

foliage later applications of copper compounds

are not recommended. The self-boiled lime- ^

sulfur wash (see page 202) is now being ad- I

vocated for the control of this and other dis-
eases of peach. In some experiments carried

on by the U. S. Dept. Agr. 1907 the loss from

this disease was reduced from j^iyo on un-

sprayed trees to about 10% on sprayed rows.

The new remedy is at least worth a trial.

Spray with self-boiled lime-sulfur wash,

10-15-50. First application when fruit is about

the size of the end of your thumb. Repeat

every two weeks until about two weeks be-
fore fruit ripens. See American Pomological

Society Report 1907, also Report Missouri

Horticultural Society, 1907. (Fig. 170.)

is a fungous disease in which the leaves become swollen and
Leaf-curl distorted in spring and drop during June and July. Elberta is
an especially susceptible variety. Easily and completely con-
trolled by spraying the trees once, before the buds szvell with Bordeaux, 5-5-50,

or with the lime-sulfur mixtures used for San Jose scale (see under fungicide).

See Cornell Bulletins 164 and 180, Michigan Special Bulletins 27 and 30. Copper

Fig. 170. Mummies on peach tree
the result of brown-rot.

198

Bulletin 252.

sulfate 2 lbs. to 50 gals, water is also efifective. The addition of lime, however,
makes it easj' to tell where the spray has been applied.

This often proves troublesome in wet seasons and particularly

Black-spot in damp or sheltered situations. While this disease attacks the

or scab. twigs and leaves it is most conspicuous and injurious on the

fruit where it appears as dark spots or blotches. In severe
attack, the fruit cracks. In the treatment of
this disease, it is of prime importance to secure
a free circulation of air about the fruit. Ac-
complish this by avoiding low sites, by pruning
and by removal of windbreaks. Spray as for
leaf-cnrl and follow with two applications of
potassium sulfide, i oz. to 3 gals., the first being
made soon after the fruit is set and the second
when the fruit is half grown. The self-cooked
lime-sulfur wash has been shown to be very
effective against this disease. See brown rot.
(Fig. 171.) '^^^^^^^i^ - /

is a so-called ''physiological
Yellows disease." Cause unknown.

Contagious and quite serious
in some localities. Known by the premature pjg j^j Black-spot on peach.
ripening of the fruit, by red streaks and spots

in the fruit flesh and by the peculiar clusters of sickly, yellowish shoots that
appear on the limbs here and there. Eradication is the only means of control.
Dig out and burn diseased trees as soon as discovered.

PEAR.

This is the same as fire blight of apple but it is more destructive
Fire-blight, to pears. It kills the twigs and branches on which the leaves

suddenly blacken and die but do
not fall. It also produces cankers on the trunk and
large limbs. Prune out blighted branches as soon as
discovered, cutting 6 to 8 inches below the lowest
evidences of the disease. Clean out limb and body
cankers as described for fire blight on apple trees.
Disinfect all large wounds with corrosive sublimate
solution, I to 1000, and cover with coat of paint.
See Cornell Bulletin 236. Avoid forcing a rapid,
succulent growth of wood. Plant the varieties least
affected.

is a fungous disease very similar to
Scab apple scab but it is not the same,

however. It is very destructive to
some varieties, as for example, Flemish Beauty and
Scckel. Spray three times with Bordeaux as for
apple scab. See Cornell Bulletin 145 and Geneva
Bulletins 67 and 84. (Fig. 172.) pig_ 172. Pear-scab.

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.'

199

PLUM.

is the same as brown rot of peach,
and should be treated in the same
way. (Fig. 173.)

This is the same as leaf-spot of
cherry and may be controlled by
two or three applications of Bor-
Make the first one about ten days
after the blossoms fall and the others at intervals of
about three weeks. This applies to European varie-
ties. Japan plums should not be sprayed with Bor-
deax. See Geneva Bulletins 98 and 117.

is the same disease as black knot of
Black-knot cherries and is controlled in same
way. For control of this disease by
spraying see Cornell Bulletin 81.

Brown-rot

Leaf-spot
deaux, 5-5-50.

Fig. 173. Brown-rot on
plum.

POTATO.

There are different kinds of potato blight and rot. The most
Blight and rot. important are early blight and late blight — both fungous dis-
eases. Early blight affects only the foliage. Late blight kills
the foliage and often rots the tubers. Two serious troubles often mistaken for
blight are: (i) Tip burn, the browning of the tips and margins of the leaves due
to dry weather; and (2) flea-beetle injury, in which the leaves show numerous
small holes and then dry up. The loss from blight and flea-beetles is enormous —
often, one-fourth to one-half the crop. For blight, rot and flea-beetles spray with
Bordeaux, 5-5-50. For addition of insect poisons see potato flea-beetles. Com-
mence when the plants are 6 to 8 inches high and repeat every 10 to 14 days
during the season, making 5 to 7 applications in all. Use from 40 to 100 gallons
per acre at each application. Under conditions exceptionally favorable to blight
it will pay to spray as often as once a week. See Geneva Bulletins loi, 123,
221, 241, 264, 267, 279 and 290.

is caused by a fungus that
Scab attacks the surface of the

tubers. It is carried over
on diseased tubers and in the soil. In general,
when land becomes badly infested with scab
it is best to plant it with other crops for sev-
eral years. See Vermont Bulletin 85 and
Maine Bulletin 141.

QUINCE.

This is a fungous disease
Leaf and Fruit producing round, reddish-
Spot, brown spots on the leaves
and fruit. Spray three
times with Bordeaux as for apple and pear
scab. See Cornell Bulletin 145. (Fig. 174.)

Fig. 174. Fruit-spot on quince.

200

Bulletin 252.

i

RASPBERRY.

is very destructive to black raspberries but not often injurious
Anthracnose to the red varieties. It is detected by the circular or elliptical,
gray, scab-like spots on the canes. Avoid taking young plants
from diseased plantations. Remove all old canes and badly diseased new ones as
soon as the fruit is gathered. Although spraying vi^ith Bordeaux,
5-5-50, will control the malady, it may not be profitable. If
spraying seems advisable make the first application when the new
canes are 6 to 8 inches high and follow with two more at intervals
of 10 to 14 days. See Geneva Bulletin 124. (Fig. 175.)

This is a destructive disease affecting both red

Cane-blight and black varieties. Fruiting canes suddenly

or wilt. wilt and die. It is caused by a fungus wliich

attacks the cane at some point and kills the bark

and wood thereby causing the parts above to die. No successful

method of treatment is known. In making new settings use only

plants from healthy plantations. Remove the fruiting canes as

soon as the fruit is gathered. See Geneva Bulletin 226.

is often serious on black varieties but does not
Kea-rust affect red ones. It is the same as red rust of *>

blackberry. Dig up and destroy affected plants.
This is often destructive, particularly to the red
Crown gall or varieties. It is detected by the large, irregular
root-knot. knots on the roots and at the crown under-
ground. It is a contagious disease. Never set
plants showing root-knots. Avoid planting on infested land. The
same disease occurs on peaches.

ROSE.

is one of the conmionest diseases of the rose.
Black leaf spotit causes the leaves to fall prematurely. Spray

with Bordeaux, 5-5-50, beginning as soon as
the first spots appear on the leaves. Two or three applications
at intervals of ten days will very largely control the disease.
Ammoniacal copper carbonate may be used on roses grown under
glass. Apply once a week until disease is under control.

For greenhouses roses, keep the steam pipes
Mildew. painted witli a paste made of ec|ual parts lime

and sulfur mixed up with water. The mildew
is a surface-feeding fungus and is killed by the fumes of the sulfur. Out-door
roses that become infested with the mildew may be dusted with sulfur or sprayed
with a solution of potassium sulfide, i oz. to 3 gallons water. Spray or dust with
the sulfur two or three times at intervals of a week or ten days.

Fig. 175. Kasp-
bcrry anthrac-
nose.

Leaf-spot

STRAWBERRY.

is the most common and serious fungous disease of the straw-
berry. It is also called rust and leaf-blight. The leaves show
spots which are, at first, of a deep purple color, but later enlarge

Insect Pests and Plant Dise.\ses. 201

and the center becomes gray or nearly white. The fungus passes the winter in the
old, diseased leaves that fall to the ground. In setting new plantations, remove
all diseased leaves from the plants before they are taken to the field. Soon
after growth begins, spray the newly set plants with Bordeaux 5-5-50. Make
three or four additional sprayings during the season. The following spring, spray
just before blossoming and again 10 to 14 days later. If the bed is to be fruited
a second time, mow the plants and burn over the beds as soon as the fruit is gath-
ered. Plant resistant varieties. See Cornell Bulletin 79.

TOMATO.

is the most destructive foliage disease of the tomato in the

Septoria, state. The distinguishing character of this fungous disease is

leaf-spot that it begins on the lower leaves and works towards the top,

killing the foliage as it goes. It is controlled with difficulty

because it is carried over winter in the diseased leaves and tops that fall to the

ground. When setting out plants, pinch off all the lower leaves that touch the

ground ; also any leaves that show suspicious looking dead-spots. The trouble

often starts in the seed-bed. Spray plants very thoroughly with Bordeaux,

5-5-50, beginning as soon as the plants are set out. Stake and tie up for greater

convenience in spraying. Spray under side of the leaves. Spray every week or

ten days.

TURNIP.

^1 , is the same disease as the club root of cabbage. Same treat-

Club root

ment.

is a bacterial disease, the same as soft rot of cabbage. Plant
Soft rot on soils free from the disease. Avoid planting varieties espec-
ially susceptible to the trouble. The white turnip seems to be
more susceptible than the yellow varieties.

WHEAT.

Stinking smut.

This is usually not detected until harvest time. The affected
heads appear nearly normal, only the kernels being attacked.
The diseased kernels are composed of a brown, foul-smelling
powder. They may be crushed easily between the thumb and
finger. Readily controlled by treating the seeds with formalin solution as for oat-
smut, which see. See U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 250.

is conspicuous in the field at "heading" time. Both grain and
Loose smut chaff are attacked and transformed into a loose black powder
most of whicli is blown away by harvest time leaving the stalk
bare. It is common and destructive. In 1907, the average loss in New York was
at least 10 per cent. This smut is not controlled by treatment with formalin or
other chemicals, but should be prevented by treating the seeds with hot water as
follows: Soak sack of wheat in cold water for 12 hours, drain i hour; submerge
sack for ten minutes in water held at temperature of 130° F. The temperature
must not rise above this as it would then injure the germinating ability of
the grain.

202 Bulletin 252.

V. FUNGICIDES.

H. H. WHETZEL AND C. S. WILSON.

The most important fungicides are as follows : Bordeaux mixture,
ammoniacal copper carbonate, potassium sulfide, copper sulfate, flowers
of sulfur, corrosive sublimate, formalin, lime-and-sulfur wash. ,•

Copper sulfate, 5 lbs.
Bordeaux Stone lime or quicklime (unslaked), 5 lbs.
mixture. Water, 50 gals.

Bordeaux is the most improtant fungicide for general use. The
strength varies according to the plant to be sprayed. The formula given above
is the strength usually recommended. When a different strength is necessary,
the formula is given under that disease. Stock mixtures of copper sulfate and
lime are desirable. They are prepared in the following manner :

Dissolve the required amount of copper sulfate in water in the
Coi)t>er sulfate P''opo''tion of one pound to one gallon several hours before the

solution is needed, suspend the copper sulfate crystals in a sack

near the top of the water. A solution of copper sulfate is
heavier than water. As soon, then, as the crystals begin, to dissolve the solution
will sink, bringing water again in contact with the crystals. In this way, the crystals
will dissolve much sooner than if placed in the bottom of the barrel of water.
In case large quantities of stock solution are needed, two pounds of copper
sulfate may be dissolved in one gallon of water.

Slake the required amount of lime in a tub or trough. Add the
Lime. water slowly at first, so that the lime crumbles into a fine

powder. If small quantities of I'ime are used, hot water is pre-
ferred. When completely slaked, or entirely powdered add more water. When
the lime has slaked sufficiently, add water to bring it to a thick milk, or to a certain
number of gallons. The amount required or each tank of spray mixture can be
secured approximately from this stock mixture which should not be allowed to dry
out.

Take 5 gallons of stock solution of copper sulfate for every fifty

To make gallons of Bordeaux required. Pour this into the tank. Add

Bordeaux. water until the tank is about two-thirds full. From the stock

lime mixture take the required amount. Knowing the number
of pounds of lime in the stock mixture and the volume of that mixture, one can
take out approximately the number of pounds required. Dilute this a little by
adding water, and strain into the tank. Stir the m-ixture, and add water to
make the required amount. Experiment stations often recommend the diluting of
both the copper sulfate solution and the lime mixture to one half the required amount
before pouring together. This is not necessary, and is often impracticable for
commercial work, ll is preferable to dilute the copper sulfate solution. Never pour
together the strong stock mixtures and dilute afterward. Bordeaux mixture of
other strengths as recommended is made in the same way, except that the amounts
of copper sulfate and lime are varied according to the requirements.

It is not necessary to weigh the lime in making Bordeaux mix-

The fcrro- t"''c for <'i simple test can be used to determine when enough of

cyanide test. ^ stock lime mixture has been added. Dissolve an ounce of

yellow prussiate of potash in a pint of water and label it

Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

203

" poison." Cut a V-shaped slit in one side of the cork so. that the liquid may be
poured out in drops. Add the lime mixture to the d'iluted copper sulfate solution
until the ferro-cyanide test solution n'ill not turn broicii when dropped from the
bottle into the mixture. It is always best to add a considerable excess of lime.

170. Bordeaux injury on apples.

BORDEAUX INJURY. (Fig. 176.)

Some plants are injured by the ordinary strength of Bordeaux even when
properly made. Others, like the apple, are sometimes injured by quite a weak
Bordeaux under certain weather conditions. The leaves of most varieties of
stone fruits, especially peaches, and Japanese plums are most sure to be in-
jured by Bordeaux except in very weak mixtures. The injury to these plants
consists usually of small holes in the leaves, very similar in appearance to the
shot-hole effect of certain fungi. The
injury on apple occurs on both the
leaves and the fruit. On the leaves it
consists of quite definite brown spots
very much like certain leaf spots due
to fungi. The injury on the fruit takes
the form of russeting. It may even
cause large cracks to appear. Some
varieties of apples suffer more than
others. Wet weather during spraying
season appears to be one of the cliief
factors in the production of Bordeaux
injury on apples. It has also been

shown that "the more copper sulfate, the greater the injury." It is to be under-
stood, however, that injury from Bordeaux is much less common and serious than
injury from the fungous disease, to prevent which it is applied. For a fuller dis-
cussion of this subject see Geneva Bulletin 287.

Copper carbonate, 5 oz. ; ammonia, 3 pts. ; water, 50 gals. Dilute

the ammonia in seven or eight quarts of water. Make a paste

of the copper carbonate with a little water. Add the paste to

the diluted ammonia, and stir until dissolved. Add enough

water to make fifty gallons. This mixture loses strength on

standing, and therefore should be made as required. It is used in place of

Bordeaux where one wishes to avoid the coloring of maturing fruits or ornamental

plants. Probably, it is not as effective as Bordeaux.

If large amounts of the above mixture are required, it is more economical for
the grower himself to make the copper carbonate. Proceed as follows : Dissolve
12 lbs. of copper sulfate (blue vitriol) in 12 gals, of water in a barrel. Dissolve 15
lbs. of sal soda in 15 gals, of water (preferably hot). Allow the solution to cool;
then add the sal soda solution to the copper sulfate solution, pouring slowly in
order to prevent the mixture from boiling up and running over. A fine precipitate
which will settle to the bottom after the mixture has stood about twelve hours is
formed. Siphon off the clear liquid above. Wash the precipitate by adding clear
water, stirring and again allowing to settle. Siphon off the clear water, strain the
precipitate through muslin, and allow it to dry. This is copper carbonate. The
above amounts will make about six pounds.

Ammoniacal

copper

carbonate.

204 Bulletin 252.

Potassium sulfide (liver of sulfur), 3 oz. ; water, 10 gals. As
Potassium this mixture loses strength on standing, it should be made just
sulfide. before using. It is particular!}^ valuable for the powdery mil-

dew of many plants, especially gooseberry, carnation rust, rose
mildew, etc.

Copper sulfate, i lb. ; water, 15-25 gals. Dissolve the copper
Copper sulfate in the water. It is then ready for use. One pound in

sulfate. twenty gallons of water has been found effective against peach

leaf-curl. This mixture should never be applied to the foliage,
but must be used before the buds break. A much weaker solution has been recom-
mended for trees in leaf, but it is rarely used.

Sulfur has been found to possess considerable value as a fungi-
Sulfur. cide. The flower of sulfur may be sprinkled over the plants,

especially when they are wet. It is most effective in hot dry
weather. In rose houses, it is mixed with half its bulk of lime, and made into a
paste with water. This is painted on the steam pipes. The fumes destroy mildew
on the roses. Mixed with lime, it has proved effective in the control of onion smut
when drilled into the rows with the seed. Sulfur is not effective against black rot
of grapes, and many other diseases.

Corrosive sublimate, i oz. ; water, 7 gals. An eft'ective solution

Corrosive for potato scab. Soak seed potatoes one and one-half hours.

sublimate It is also a good antiseptic for dressing wounds. After cutting

solution. out fire blight or canker, swab the wound thoroughly with this

solution.

This is a gas dissolved in water. Commercially, it has a

Formalin. strength of about fort}' per cent. One pint dissolved in thirty

gallons of water is used effectively in preventing potato scab

(soak tubers for half an hour, and plant in clean soil), or smut of oats and stinking

smut of wheat (soak seed in solution for ten minutes, drain and sow the next day).

The lime-and-sulfur wash has considerable value as a fungicide.

Lime and For its preparation and use, see under insecticides.

sulfur wash. A modified form of this wash, known as the "self-cooked"

lime-sulfur wash, is now being recommended for the spraying of

peaches, plums and apple foliage. It is said to cause no injury

to the leaves or fruit. Good results have been secured in controlling brown rot and

scab of peaches. Prepare as follows: Place ten pounds of sulfur and fifteen

pounds of stone-lime in a barrel. Add hot water slowly to slake the lime, keeping

the mass wet, but not sulnuerged. Stir occasionally. Part of the large lumps

of lime may be kept out at first and added after slaking has progressed to some

extent, thus prolonging the slaking and heating. When slaked, dilute to fifty

gallons, and apply as you would Bordeaux.

Resin, 2 lbs. ; sal soda, (crystals) i lb. ; water, i gal. Boil until

"Sticker" or of a clear brown color — one to one and one-half hours. Cook in

adhesive. iron kettle in tlic open. Useful for onions, cabbage and other

plants hard to wet. Add tiiis amount to each fifty gallons of

Bordeaux. For other plants, add this amount to every one hundred gallons

of the mixture. This mixture will prevent the Bordeaux from being washed off

by the heaviest rains.

APRIL, 1908 BULLETIN 253

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF
THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Department of Plant Pathology and Horticulture

THE BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE, AND ITS CONTROL

BY

DONALD REDDICK and C. S. WILSON

ITHACA, N. Y.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY

ORGANIZATION

Of the Cornell University Agriculture Experiment

Station

BOARD OF CONTROL

THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

the agricultural college and station council
JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.
FRANKLIN C CORNELL, Trustee of the University.
LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station.
EMMONS L. WILLIA^IS. Treasurer of the University.
JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.
HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

experimenting staff
LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.
JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology,
HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.
JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.
T. LYTTLETON LYON, Agronomy.
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Plant Biology.
BENJAMIN M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology.
JOHN L. STONE, Farm Practice.
JAMES E. RICE. Poultry Husbandry.
MARK V. SLINGERLAND. Entomology.
GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.
ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation.
HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.
G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops.
W. A. STOCKING. Jr., Dairy Bacteriology.
LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.
CHARLES S. WILSON, Plorticulture.
M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.
JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry.
CHARLES F. CLARK, Agronomy.
CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology.
J. B. NORTON, Plant Biology.

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry.
P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

D. REDDICK, Plant Pathology.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in Nev\r
York State who request them.

206

I. THE FUNGUS THAT CAUSES BLACK-ROT OF GRAPES.

BY DONALD REDDICK,

While black-rot has been present in New York for a long time,
during the past few years losses from this source have been in-
creasing. In the period from 1 904 to 1906 they were very heavy, amount-
ing to an entire failure in many localities. Recognizing the serious
nature of the trouble and giving heed to the earnest request of certain
large growers, a thorough investigation of the nature of this disease has
been instituted at this Station. These pages are in the nature of a pre-
liminary report on the progress of the work. The facts here recorded
have been observed during the past year, at the special field station
located at Romulus, N. Y., and have been confirmed by observations in
other localities. No claim is made to originality for indeed most of the
observations recorded here have been published at some time
by various investigators in other State Experiment Stations, notably by
Scribner and later Galloway, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Chester
in Delaware; Price in Texas; Selby in Ohio; and others.

It is a function of all plants to reproduce themselves and thus per-
petuate and propagate the species. This function is performed by the
plants with which we are best acquainted, by means of seeds. The seed
is a resting stage and serves to carry the plant through the winter.

There are, however, a very large number of plants known to the
casual observer only by the effect they produce. This is because of their
small size and the necessity of a microscope to examine and study them.
They, however, are similar to other plants in that they produce a winter
or resting stage, the unit of which is called a spore. Among this large
number of microscopic plants is a group known as fungi. It is to this
group (many of them parasites), that we may attribute a large number
of the diseases of cultivated plants as well as some of those of
animals.

Nature of black-rot.

The black-rot of grapes is caused by a fungus which lives as a para-
site on the green parts of the vine and fruit, thus sapping the vitality of

the vine and often destroying all the fruit. This fungus (Guignardia

207

208

Bulletin

253-

hidwellii) produces its winter or resting stage on the black hard mummied

grape berry or its pedicel (Fig. 177). Its spores are contained in tubular

sacs, each sac or ascus containing 8 spores. A large number of the sacs

(20-50) are grouped close together and surrounded by several layers of

thick-walled cells. Protection is thus

assured for the spores or germs.

This cluster of sacs with their thick

protection appears to the naked eye

as a very small pimple on the surface

of the mummied berry. Every berry

may have a hundred or more such

pimples, which are technically known

as perithecia. (See Fig. 178.)

Some of the spores are ripe and

ready to grow about the time the

first three or four leaves on the new

shoots appear. Others do not ripen

until later. If the first fail to start

the disease, those produced later will.

This succession of maturity of

spores is such that as late as October

winter-spores just in condition to grow

can be found. This at least was true

during the past season, which was very

dry. The fungus, just as any field

Fig. 177 — The mummy berries, on crop, must have moisture in order to
which the fungus passes the winter. p-rnw

The accompanying illustration (Fig. 178) is of a thin section through
the middle of the perithecium, taken at a stage when only a few of the
sacs have mature spores. In the others, the spores are not yet formed.
The section is greatly magnified and shows the condition when water is
added. In the vineyard, this would mean whenever rain or dew lodged
on the mummied berry. The sacs that contain ripe spores become gela-
tinous and, being swelled by the addition of water, protrude themselves
beyond the wall of the perithecium. For this reason, poisonous sub-
stances sprayed on the mummies are not effective, since they do not
touch the germs.

Distribution of the germs.

Now a most interesting thing, as seen under the microscope, takes
place. The spores are crowded to the upper end of the ascus and the
one at the tip can be seen to be moving. It is as though the spore

The Black-rot of the Grape, and its Control.

209

ascospore

which is widest at the middle, were trying to squeeze through a tight
place. At first, it moves slowly, but eventually the widest part passes
the constriction and the spore is snapped into the air. It is often thus
discharged for a distance of more than a centimetre (J inch). The next
spore is pushed up and follows closely after the first, so that all
eight spores may be discharged into the air in the course of ten
minutes.

Critical stage.

Now comes the most critical stage for the fungus. In order to con-
tinue its existence the spore must fall upon some green part of the vine,
either stem, tendril, leaf, or young cluster. The only plant, other than
the grape, on which it
is known' to grow is
the Virginia creeper or
5-leaved ivy. It will
not grow on weeds,
grass, posts, wires, or
on any dead material
except by careful nurs-
ing in the laboratory.
If the cluster of mum-
mies is clinging to the
vine, it is easy for the
spores to fall down and

lodge on a leaf or even

, 1 , , Fig. 178 — Diagrammatic section of a perithecium. contain-

De Diown across to ^^^^ winter-spores. The spores do not all mature at the

other vines. Most of sam.e time. Germination of the spores can be seen at

the mummied berries, '^' ''^^^- ^^''""'^y '^^S'"'/^^^-)

however, are knocked off in pruning and are lying on the ground. The

fungus is therefore largely dependent on the wind to blow the spores

to the leaves or fruits, and for this reason a comparatively small

number ever survive.

qerminaTion

Infection.

The spore that lodges upon a green part of the vine must have a drop
of water, though it may be very small, in which to germinate and grow.
Germination rarely takes place in less than 36 hours. In 36 to 48 hours
a small bud or protrusion (germ tube) appears on one side, see (Fig. 178),
and as it grows the tip makes its way through the surface of the leaf or

-lO Bulletin 253.

green stem. Growth of the tube continues by the absorption of sap and
other food material from the vine. The fine thread-like tube branches
and spreads out for a short distance on the inside. Cross-walls are now
formed and the growth is known as mycelium. The mycelium is the
vegetative or growing stage of the fungus and, although rarely seen, is
the stage which does the great damage. The threads not only push
between the cells of the grape and in that way absorb the sap which
would normally flow from one cell to another, but also penetrate directly
into the cell and take up food material there. When the mycelium has
established itself on the inside and can no longer be prevented from grow-

FiG. 179 — On the left, black-rot spots on the leaf (natural size); on the right,
photomicrograph of a small portion of a single spot showing fruit bodies

of the fungus.

ing or be killed by means of a poisonous spray, infection is said to have
taken place; the leaf or vine is infected.

Incubation.

The mycelial threads grow for a short distance in all directions from
the point of infection; never as much as an inch and usually not more
than J to J inch. This growth takes place rather slowly and there is no
external evidence of it until 12 to 20 days after infection took place.
This time is known as the period of incubation. At the end of this time
the diseased area changes color and that part of the leaf becomes
yellowish brown in color. (See Fig. 179).

The Black-rot of the Gil\pe, and its Control.

211

Pycnidia.

Spores..,

Germinated
@E-^ Spores

The mycelium serves the treble purpose to the fungus of root, stem
and leaf. It alone develops a receptacle in which reproductive bodies
are produced, while the root, stem and leaf of the stalk of corn all con-
tribute to the production of an ear (seed). The fruiting bodies of the
fungus that contain the summer spores (Fig. i8o) are formed of very-
short interwoven branches of the mycelium which become thick-walled
and black, and are ^

known as pycnidia.
There is a small cir-
cular opening at the
top. The pycnidia
form a more or less
concentric ring on the
spot and there are
from 5 to 30 or more
of them on a single
spot, visible to the
naked eye as very
small pimples. The

interior of each pyc- t- o 7^ ■ • ■ , , • ,

/-^ riG. 180 — Diagrammatic section tlirough a single pyc-

nidium IS lined with a nidimn, showing how the snminer-sporcs are produced
laver of delicate club- '^^^^ ^"^^ ^^^^ germ-inate, {Greatly magnified.)

shaped bodies. These are specialized mycelial threads, and the summer-
spores or pycnospores are formed on their tips. Summer-spores
are formed in this way until the pycnidia become filled with
them.

Summer-spores.

These spores are surrounded by a gelatinous substance. When a
drop of water is placed on a ripe pycnidium, this gelatinous substance
swells and the pycnospores are forced out through the hole in the top
in a fine white thread-like stream. (Fig. 180). The pycnospores germinate
in water in 18 to 24 hours, grow, form a new mycelium and produce
exactly the same effect as the winter-spores. They also have the par-
ticular advantage of being on the leaves or stems and later on the berries
from which the wind may carry them for considerable distance to other
vines.

212

BuLL::-riN 253.

Stages of infection.

In Fig. 181 are shown the spots formed by the first infection of 1907
on stem, leaf, leaf petiole and tendril. These spots are frequently over-
looked by the grower. To many, the first signs of the black-rot is the
blackening of the pedicel of the berry. This, however, is only one of the
many points of first infection. The little berry is protected by the calyx

Fig. 181 — Black-rot fungus on the canes, showing as pits and blotches.

which falls off at blooming time while its pedicel is not so protected; but
as the source of sap is cut off the berry fails to develop.

In the vineyards at Romulus in 1907, the first infection from winter-
spores took place with the rain of June 22nd and 23rd, which was followed
by showers and cloudy weather. The first spots appeared July loth.
The period of incubation was thus from 16 to 18 days. The second

The Black-rot of the Grape, and its Control. 213

infection from winter-spores took place June 30th and the 48 or 60 hours
of cloudy and rainy weather following. The spots appeared July 17th
and later. The vines were in full bloom June 28th and no doubt some
of the small berries were infected at this time, though the number was
comparatively small. The third infection took place from ascospores
also, for no pycnospores were mature at this time, and proved to be more
abundant on berries than any place else. The ascospore, if it has the
moisture, will penetrate the berry just as it did the leaf. The infection
came with the gentle rains of the nth and 12th of July, and the first
external indications appeared on July 21st and 22nd.

Period of incubation.

The period of incubation in the juicy berry is usually from 8 to 14
days at the end of which time a small circular, whitish spot i to 2 mm

Fig. 1 82 — Showing stages in the rotting of the fruit.

(1-12 in.) in diameter, appears. This enlarges rapidly and in 48 to 60
hours may involve half of the berry. About this time a blackening
appears at the center of the spot. This is caused by the formation on
the mycelium and just under the cuticle of the berry of a large number
of pycnidia. These form very rapidly and in 24 hours more than half
of the berry may have turned black. Thus it is that one ' frequently
hears it said, "the whole vineyard rotted down in a day,"

Black-rot on the berry.

It occasionally happens that the effect on the berry is much like that
on the stem, so that a black crust is formed only on one side of the berry.
Usually, however, the whole berry is involved. By the time the whole
berry has become discolored, wrinkles are appearing on the side first
attacked and eventually the berry becomes wrinkled and black and dry.
(Fig'. 182). The pycnidia are very numerous on these mummified berries

214 Bulletin 253.

and they contain great quantities of pycnospores which with another
rain and favorable weather produce another infection. And so it is
that during the entire season following every rain there is a new infection
which becomes evident on the berries about ten days or two weeks later.
If the conditions are right, the berry will be infected at any stage up to
the time it is ripe and ready to pick. The rot does not go from one berry
to another except by means of spores.

The effect of dry weather.

The remainder of the month of July, 1907, after the 12th, and most of
August was very 6xy. Very few infections took place during this period.
There was an enormous number of pycnospores formed in the pycnidia
on the rotted berries and on other parts of the vine but for want of mois-
ture these remained in the pycnidia, protruding slightly and forming a
white speck at the apex.

With the rapid growth of the healthy berries the opening in the
cluster, caused by the drying up of some berries from black rot, soon fills.
In some cases, it is just as well that some of the berries be removed but in
the case of a light setting, every berry that rots represents an actual loss,
to say nothing of the danger of spreading the disease to other berries.
It very frequently happens that as much as 25% of the crop may disap-
pear in this way without attracting the attention of the grower.

Preparation for winter.

When the pycnospores are discharged from the pycnidia, the latter
become entirely filled with whitish cells and remain through the winter
in this way. In the spring these cells elongate to form the ascus, and the
whitish content breaks up to form the eight spores.

Other sources of infection.

It frequently happens that pycnospores formed on the berries in
the autumn have thicker walls and are not discharged from the pycnidia.
They lie thus through the winter and the following spring are discharged
and produce an infection. It also happens that the pycnospores are not
discharged from some of the pycnidia on the tendrils or stems. These
live and are capable of producing an infection.

With the above facts in regard to the life-history of this fungus, the
reasons for the recommendations at the end of this bulletin will become
apparent. Further information in regard to any of these points will be
gladly furnished by addressing an inquiry to the Department of Plant
Pathology, New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y.

The Black-rot of the Grape, and its Control. 215

II. THE CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT.

Under the direction of Professor john craig.

BY C. S. WILSON.
EXPERIMENTS OF I906.

Three experiments were conducted by the Department of Horti-
culture under the direction of Professor Craig. The purpose of these
experiments was to study the effectiveness of different fungicides for
controlling the black-rot. They were conducted in the vineyards of the
Niagara Grape Company at Romulus, N. Y., which are under the super-
intendency of Mr. G. G. Lansing; in the vineyards of Mr. H. H. Bradley
King Ferry; and Mr. M. E. Sperry, Ludlowville.

The vineyard of the Niagara Grape Company is situated about two
miles from the west side of Cayuga Lake. The land slopes slightly to the
east. The soil is a rich clay loam, and for several years the vineyard has
been well cultivated. The vines are about twenty years old, and had
been well sprayed previously. In 1905, black-rot destroyed the entire
crop. The variety is Niagara.

Mr. Bradley's vineyard is situated on the east side of the lake at
King Ferry. The land slopes sharply to the west. The soil is a sandy
or gravelly loam, and has been well cultivated. The vines are nineteen
years old. Since the black-rot has not yet seriously affected the vine-
yard, it has been sprayed for two or three years only. In 1905, portions
only and not the whole vineyard were affected. In the experimental
plat the variety is Catawba.

Mr. Sperry's vineyard is on the east side of the lake at Ludlowville.
The land slopes sharply to the west. The soil is a gravelly loam. For
the last four years the vineyard has been poorly cared for, and the vines
have not been sprayed. In 1905, the black-rot destroyed nearly the
entire crop. The variety is Concord.

No accurate results were obtained from Mr. Sperry's vineyard.
The grapes rotted badly, burst open early, and were picked before the
yields were computed. The results as shown by field notes substantiate
in a general way the findings secured in the other two vineyards.

A plat or block was chosen in each vineyard, all parts of which plat
were under nearly uniform conditions. Thirteen rows, each twenty to
twenty-five rods long, were selected and treated as follows:

"i. Check (unsprayed).

2. Bordeaux, 5-4-40 + sulphur 6 lbs. to 40 gals.

3-

a

u

a

4

u

11

u

4-

u

it

li

2

il

u

il

2i6 Bulletin 253.

5. Check.

6. Bordeaux, 5-4-40, (two applications). Ammoniacal coppef

carbonate (three appUcations).

7. Bordeaux (five appHcations).

8. " (four " ).

9. « (three " 3.

10. Check.

11. Bordeaux, 6-4—40.

12. " 4-4-40.

13. Check.

Each plat was sprayed five times as follows :

Niagara Grape Company H. H. Bradley

ist. April 2istto 27th. May 12th.

2nd. May 24th. June 22nd.

3rd. June 6th. July loth.

4th. July nth. Aug. 7th.

5th. Aug. 20th. Aug. 17th.

Probably the vines were more thoroughly sprayed than they would
be by the commercial vineyardist, yet not more thoroughly than would
be practicable for him.

The appearance of the disease was first noticed in the vineyard of
the Niagara Grape Company on June 23rd, at which time it was prevalent
in the form of small round spots on the leaves. No trace of it was as yet
visible on the berries. On June 30th, it was found on the berries, which
at that time varied in size from that of a radish seed to a small pea. On
July ist, probably five per cent of the clusters on each vine showed a
little rot. The diseased berries were not confined to the tip, but appeared
on any part of the bunch.

From this time, the disease spread very rapidly, and on July 17th
a very general outbreak which practically ruined the entire crop appeared.
Probably, there was not one bunch in a thousand that was not afiiected.
After July 17th, the rot spread very little, and very slowly. This con-
dition continued until the fruit ripened. In the vineyard of Mr. Bradley,
it appeared at a later date, and was less violent.

Two methods were employed to compute the results, one based on
the number of the clusters, the other on the weight of the fruit. As time
would not permit the Experiment Station men to pick the fruit from the
entire plat, cross sections were selected in which conditions were as
uniform as possible. In the vineyard of the Niagara Grape Company
two sections were chosen; in the vineyard of Mr. Bradley, three. The
entire crop was picked from these sections, and the clusters sorted into

The Black-rot of the Grape, and its Control.

2i;

grades, usable and nonusable. These grades were arbitrarily chosen.
Under the head of usable, were classed those bunches of which the
majority of berries were sound. Some bunches were nearly perfect;
others contained a few rotted berries. One could scarcely call the fruit
of this grade marketable.

As non-usable, were classed the remaining clusters of which the
majority of berries had rotted. The number of usable and non-usable
clusters was counted in every case. Each grade was also weighed.

Fig. 184 — Fruit from sprayed and check rows.

From left to right:

1. Non-marketable fruit from check row .

2. Marketable fruit from check row.

3. Non-marketable fruit from sprayed row.

4. Marketable fruit from sprayed row.

In the case of the Niagara Grape Company, the fruit that remained
on the vines after the Experiment Station men had computed their
results was picked by Mr. Lansing hiinself. This was taken to the pack-
ing house and graded by the packers. A record was made of the number
of pounds picked from each row.

The results in tabular form are given below:

1. Check

2. Bor.— sulphur 6 lbs

3. " " 4 "

4. " " 2 "

5. Check

6. Bor. 2 ap. A. C. C. 3 ap.

7. " s applications

8. " 4 "

9. "3 "

10. Check

1 1 . Bor. 6-4-40

12. " 4-4-40

13. Check

No. lbs.
of fruit
packed

for
market

6i

8ii

103J

ii8i

i
99
61
84

6s

46
36

Niagara Grape Co.

Clusters

Usa-
ble
%

27
59
68
78
18

79
70
62
6S
3
62

34
20

Non-
Usa-
ble
%

73
41
32
22

83

21
30
38

35
97
38
66
80

Weight

Usa-
ble
%

55
81
88
92
40

87
84
84
79

12

86
60
31

Non-
Usa-
ble
%

45
19
12
8
60

13
16
16
21
88
14
40

69

H. H. Bradley's.

Clusters

Usa-
ble
%

24
73
82
84
40
70
86
81
77
43
81

87

SO

Non-
Usa-
ble
%

76
27
18
16
60
30
14
19
23
57
19
13
SO

Weight

Usa-
ble
%

47
87
90
92
66
84
93
93
87
67
92
94
64

Non-
Usa-
ble
%

53
'3
10
8
34
16

7

7

13

33

8

6

36

2i8 Bulletin 253.

Deductions front the experiments of igo6

1 . Unsprayed rows yielded no marketable fruit.

2. No striking differences were shown by the different sprays,

3 . The addition of sulphur did not increase the efficiency of the spray
to a noticeable degree.

4. The best results were secured with Bordeaux, 5-4-40, -f sulphur
2 lbs. to 40 gals.

5. Spraying after the rot appeared apparently did not affect its
spread.

6. The foliage was much healthier and freer from disease on the
sprayed rows.

7. The rot was worse on fruit in the immediate vicinity of dried
clusters of previous years. This emphasizes the necessity of removing
all dried clusters or other means by which the disease may be
carried over winter.

8. A normal yield for one row in the vineyard of the Niagara Grape
Company approximated 400 pounds. The largest yield from any sprayed
row in the same vineyard amounted to 132 pounds. This represented a
loss of sixty-seven per cent caused by the rot, or a saving of thirty-three
per cent caused by the spraying. While this is unsatisfactory from the
standpoint of effective protection, yet the thirty-three per cent, saved
much more than paid for the operation. It is a question, however, if
grape-growing could be conducted with profit on this basis, counting
expenses and interest on investment.

On the other hand, in the vineyard of Mr. H. H. Bradley, fully
eighty per cent of the crop was saved, the loss amounting to about
twenty per cent only. Spraying, therefore, with Mr. Bradley proved of
great commercial value.

Experiments of 1907.

The work of 1906 showed marked results in favor of spraying. The
experimenters, however, did not feel that the problem was solved for the
commercial grower. Work on a larger scale must be done, and the re-
sults computed from the standpoint of the grower. Such work was
undertaken in the year 1907, A plat of ten acres was chosen in the vine-
yard of the Niagara Grape Company. The experiment was planned and
conducted with the greatest care consistent with the scale on wiiich the
work was carried out. If the rot could be controlled by spraying,
the experimenters were determined to control it. The map shows
the general plan of the work.

The Black-rot of the Grape, and its Control.

219

ROW
NUMBER

PLAT
NUMBER

34

35-39

40-44

45
46-50

51-55

56

57-61

62-66

67
68-72

73-77

78

79-83

84-88

89
90-94

95-99
100

T

2-6

Bordeaux, 5-5-50; resin sal-soda sticker

7-1 1

Bordeaux, 5-5-50; resin fish-oil soap sticker

12 ■

13-17

Sprayed and treated as Mr. Lansing treated vineyard

18-22

in 1906. (See following paragraph)

23

24-28

Bordeaux, 5-5-50; clusters bagged

29-33

Bordeaux, 5-5-50; clusters not bagged

Bordeaux, 5-5-50; dingers burned

Bordeaux, 5-5-50; dingers not burned

Bordeaux, 6-6-50.

Bordeaux, 6-6-50.

Bordeaux, 5-5-50.

Bordeaux, 5-5-50.

Bordeaux, 4-4-50.

Bordeaux, 4-4-50.

Check

Iron sulfate, 5-5-50-

ist application, lime and sulfur; others, Bordeaux

4'

8

I St application, copper sulfate solution; others, Bordeaux

220

Bulletin 253.

The plat consisted of 100 rows, 53 vines per row, vines 10 feet apart,
rows 9 feet. The area was divided into nine different plats, with one
check row between each plat. Each plat was again divided into two
parts. The purpose of such division was to test a few of the less
important treatments in view of suggestions for future work, and also
to make the tests comprehensive. The map, therefore, is made with
such divisions, and the results are tabulated accordingly. The treat-
ment of Plat 2 (sprayed and treated exactly as Mr. Lansing did last
year) is as follows:

Fig. 1 84 — A good grape hoe.

The soil is plowed from the rows in the spring, and the rows worked
with the grape hoe. No further treatment is given until July, when the
soil is plowed back to the row, and left until the following spring. The
vines are sprayed three times: First, before the buds swell; second,
before the blossoms open, third, after the blossoms fall. At each spray-
ing two small Vermorel nozzles were used on each side of the machine,
one nozzle for each wire. Plat i received the same cultivation as Plat 2.

The rest of the plats were sprayed as follows:

First, May 3-9.

Second, June 7-8.

Third, June 26-27.

Fourth, July 9-10.

(Note: Rows 35-44 also sprayed July 16),

The Black-rot of the Grape, and its Control.

221

Fifth, July 23-24.

Sixth, Aug. 5-6 (Ammoniacal copper carbonate on all plats except
check and No. 2).

Seventh, Aug. 20-21 (Aminoniacal copper carbonate same as above).

Cultivation. — Plats 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 were plowed in the spring. The
soil was thrown from the rows. The grape hoe was tised to cultivate
between the vines, and following this for clean work, the hand hoe. The
furrows were then cut with a cutaway harrow. The spring-tooth harrow
followed this, leaving the ground level and mellow. Cultivation was

Fig. 185 — Vineyard sprayer tised in the experiment, showing stationary nozzles at

side: also trailers with extension rod.

continued on these plats until about the middle of July when cover-
crops were sown as follows:

Rows 24-28 crimson clover Ji^ty 16

" 29-33, vetch " 16

" 3 5~39) criinson clover " 16

" 40-44, vetch " 16

" 46-50, mammoth clover " 24

" 57—61, crimson clover " 24

" 90-99, buckwheat " 24

The latter part of the summer was dry, and the cover-crops did not
grow well. Vetch and buckwheat did the best, with crimson clover
third.

The appearance of the rot.

On the night of Thursday, July 10, the rot was first discovered on
the leaves. It was almost entirely on the suckers at the base of the vines,

222

BULLRTIN 253.

and appeared as small spots mostly on the upper surface of the leaf. On
Monday night, July 15, the first rot was found on the berries. This
appeared to be a small epidemic. More rot showed Tuesday morning.
On sprayed rows, it was necessary to hunt to find a rotted berry. On
unsprayed rows the rot was more evident. For about a week, the berries
continued to rot slightly. On July 22, another slight epidemic began
when a number of the berries rotted. One could find a handful in walk-
ing along a row. Following this was a period of dry weather during

Fig. j86 — A cover-crop of buckwheat.

which very little rot appeared. Another small epidemic seemed to
sweep over the vineyard about the 20th of September.

The grapes were picked October 10-17. All the fruit was picked
from each plat and weighed, giving total weight. Grapes were then run
through the packing house and graded, the weight of the commercial
grade, and the weight of the culls being obtained. From these weights
the percentages were computed. They are given in the following table:

The Black-rot of Tiui Grape, and its Control.

223

TREATMENT

PLAT

1 Bordeaux, 5—5-50; resin sal-soda sticker.

" 5-5-50; fish-oil soap sticker. .

2 Same as Mr. Lansing's treatment in 15)06.
Same as Mr. Lansing's treatment in 1906.

3 Bordeaux, 5-5-50; clusters bagged

" 5-5-50; clusters not bagged..

5
6

5-5-50 ; dingers burned

5-5-50 ; dingers not burned .

6-6-50
6-6-50,

Total

weight

grapes

5-5-50-
5-5-50.

4-4-50 .
4-4-50 •

8 Check

Iron sulfate, 5-5-50.

9 First application, lime and sulphur; others

Bordeaux

First application, Cu SO4, solution; others

Bordeaux

10 10 Check ro\vs==i Plat ,

lbs.

2541

1938

2494
2494

2298
2318

2403
2306

2543
2133

2988
2275

2853
2854

2217
2181

2416

2540
4360

Weight

commercial

grade

lbs.
21 16
1566

20 ;o
2070

2186
1620

2238
2034

2218
2028

2848
21 1 1

2660
2660

1554
1713

2304

2010
2890

Weight
culls

lbs.

425
372

424
424

112
698

165
272

325

105

140
164

193

194

663
470

112

530
I47I

Per cent
commer-
cial

%

83
76

83
83

95

70

93
88

87
95

94
93

93
93

70
78

95

79

66

Cost and Returns.

The yield of commercial grapes per acre from an average of four acres

well sprayed 477o lbs.

Check 3108 "

Gain 1 662 lbs.

at 2 J cents per pound $41.55

Cost of material and labor for spraying 8 . 60

Saved per acre $32 . 95

The season of 1907 was comparatively dry, and not favorable to the
development of the disease. In spite of this fact, good results were
obtained which show that, when the rot is prevalent to a moderate degree,
spraying will completely control it. We see from this table that all
sprayed rows had very little rot, whereas the loss in the case of the check
rows was 34 per cent and in the case of the check plat 30 per cent to say
nothing of the extra labor of handling the poorer grades. Plats 4, 5, 6,

224 Bulletin 253.

and 7, which were well sprayed and cultivated, averaged only 8 per
cent. loss.

Iron sulfate mixture gave a loss of 22 per cent or a saving of 8 per
cent over the check plat. One could detect very little difference be-
tween the plat sprayed with iron sulfate and the check plat. This mix-
tuic appears to be ineffective — in fact-, little better than nothing — in
controlling the rot.

The results obtained by burning the dingers are quite marked. It
is a question, however, whether it pays on a commercial scale. The
work was done with a large torch, made by the Pearsall Manufacturing
Co., Texas. The principle of the torch is the same as that of a plumber's
torch, except larger. It required one gallon of gasoline to burn the
dingers from one row of fifty-three vines, and working only on one side
of the trellis. Undoubtedly most spores were destroyed, but a few
escaped. More satisfactory work could be done by using an ordinary
plumber's torch and burning on both sides of the trellis. The burning of
dingers is not recommended for commercial work.

The effect of spraying and cultivation on the health of the vine and
maturity of the fruit was very marked. At the time of picking, the foli-
age on the experimental plat was green and healthy. Very little had
fallen from the vines, whereas the foliage on other parts of the vineyard
which were not well cultivated nor as thoroughly sprayed had mostly
fallen. The few that remained were yellow and ripe. Practically, it is
desirable to have an abundance of foliage in the fall. In case of frost,
"^he foliage acts as a protection.

The fruit on the experimental plat ripened the earliest of any on the
vvhole vineyard of 150 acres. They were sweeter than elsewhere, and
could be picked first. As to the cause of this, the writer will not attempt
to make a positive statement. It is his opinion, however, that it was the
result of cultivation more than spraying.

The result of work at Penn Van.

A demonstration experiment to control the black rot was carried on
in the summer of 1907 in the Keuka Lake region. The work was done
in the vineyard of Mr. S. C. Williams. Four rows in solid block and each
forty rods longs, were sprayed with Bordeaux, 5-5-50. Two adjoining
rows in solid block were left unsprayed as checks. The plat was sprayed
as follows:

May loth, June 9th, June 28th, July 13th, (Bordeaux, 5-5-50), Aug.
7th, (Ammoniacal copper carbonate, 5-3-50.)

The rot was first discovered on the leaves June 28th. The spots
were about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and dearly defined, though

The Black-rot of the Grape, and its Control.

225

not numerous. The disease was first seen on the berries about July loth.
On July 13th, all the berries were picked from a sprayed and unsprayed
vine and counted. Seventeen per cent had rotted on the sprayed vines,
and twenty-seven per cent on the unsprayed. A slight epidemic ap-
peared to have swept over the vineyard about this time. Following this,
there was a period of dry weather and very little rot appeared. No other
epidemic appeared during the season.

Fig. 1S7 — The bagging of grapes.'

The grapes were picked October 21st and 2 2d. A heav}^ frost
occurred on the morning of October 21st. This did not interfere with
picking or grading of the grapes. Records were made of the net yield as
picked. The fruit was then taken to the packing house and graded. The
weights of the commercial grade and the culls were then computed.
The green grapes were placed in a grade by themselves. The results
obtained were as follows:

Total weight Weight com-
grapes mercial grade

lbs. lbs.

Sprayed rows 1322 1291I

Unsprayed rows 606 5642

8

Weight
culls
Ibs.^

3oi
412

Per cent
commercial

97
93

226 Bulletin 253.

There were four rows of sprayed grapes, and two rows of un-
sprayed,

Of the 1291^ pounds of grapes from sprayed rows, there were 158
pounds that were sorted out and graded as green grapes. Mr. Williams
stated that these would sell at ten dollars a ton. In a non-experimental
plat these green grapes would have been left to ripen, and would probably
have come in with the number one of commercial grade, There was a
much smaller quantity of green grapes in the unsprayed lot, 41 pounds
only in the total of 564J pounds,

Bagging.

Growers think that enclosing the bunch in a sack soon after the
fruit forms has several advantages:

(a) Protection from mechanical injury.

(b) Protection from frost.

(c) Delays maturity or ripening.

(d) Protection from rot.

The writer does not wish to discuss the first three. Plat 3 was
planned in order to determine what protection from the rot a bag afforded
the bunch. The results are marked. A portion of the plat was bagged
immediately after the blossoms fell and before the appearance of the rot.
The remainder was bagged about ten days later, which is as early as is
practicable on a commercial scale. The results were determined by com-
puting the per cent of bunches free from rot. Several hundred bunches
were counted, and computations made in different parts of the plat. The
results were in favor of the unbagged bunches. In the vineyard at
Romulus (Niagara), an average of the different computations
showed sixty-two per cent of the bagged bunches free from rot, and
thirty-eight to contain rotten berries. Of the unbagged, seventy-
six per cent were free from rot, and twenty-four contained rotten
berries.

The vineyard at Penn Yan showed the same results, although fewer
bunches were treated. Twelve clusters were bagged on the unsprayed
rows, and every cluster carried from three to thirteen rotten berries.
Forty clusters were bagged on the sprayed row, thirty-one of which
were more or less rotted, and nine absolutely free from rot. By
weight there were nine and one-half pounds of the bagged grapes.
Of these two pounds were absolutely free from rot, while seven
and one-half pounds carried a considerable number of rotten
berries.

The Black-rot of the Grape, and its Control. 22'j

III. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT

The most vulnerable point of attack is against the old mummies.
If it is practicable, these should be gathered at picking time along with
the gleaning, and after the separation in the packing house the whole
rotted mass burned. In this way, great quantities of rot are removed
and sources of infection for the next year destroyed.

In the spring, plow just as deeply as possible without disturbing the
roots too seriously. Turn the ground completely over, thus burying the
rotted berries three to six inches under the surface. Plow as near the
vines as possible with a two-horse plow, and then use a one-horse plow to
get nearer. Use a horse-hoe to turn the remaining debris and soil from
under the rows into the furrow. Some mummies will remain on the sur-
face even after such treatment, but each cultivation will cover up a few
of these or at least disturb them and reduce their chances for maturing
spores. Keep all weeds and grass down.

After trimming, there will be a few mummies left on the arms. The
trimmers should be instructed to gather these and as opportunity affords
burn them. All brush should be burned clean.

Never allow basal water-sprouts to spread out over the ground ; they
are prime centers of infection. Keep the vines off the ground.

A cover-crop of crimson clover, vetch or buckwheat, planted about
the middle of July or earlier, is desirable.

Spray thoroughly: first, with Bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, at the
time when third or fourth leaf is showing; second, with the same mixture
just when blossoms are swelling; third, with the same mixture soon after
flowers have fallen.

The remaining applications will depend upon the weather. If the
season is rainy, the applications should be made at intervals of ten days
to two weeks; if dry, fewer applications will be necessary. Until July 20th
use Bordeaux, 5-5-50; after this time use ammoniacal copper carbonate,
5-3-50. The latter solution will not discolor the grapes as Bordeaux
mixture would. It is nearly as efficient as Bordeaux and perfectly harm-
less to the berries.

The spray should be put on at the rate of eighty to one
hundred gallons to the acre, and under a pressure of at least one
hundred pounds. The hole in the disc of the nozzle should be
one-sixteenth inch.

Stationary nozzles may be used for the first two applications. When
the fruit begins to form, use trailers and apply the spray directly on the
berries.

228 Bulletin 253.

Formulas.

Bordeaux Mixture.

Copper sulfate (blue vitriol) 5 lbs.

Stone lime 5

Water to make 50 gals.

Many methods are recommended for making the mixture. The
following is handy and practical for the grape-grower:

Dissolve the copper sulfate crystals in water. Then pour the solu-
tion into the tank. Fill the tank about three-fourths full of water. Slake
the lime in a pail or tub, applying hot water at first. Bring the lime to a
thin milk. Strain this mixture into the spraying tank, and add water to
make the mixture up to the required amount.

Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate.

Copper carbonate 5 oz.

Ammonium 3 pts.

Water to make 50 gals.

Dilute the ammonium with six or eight times its volume of water.
Add the copper carbonate to the diluted solution, and stir until dissolved.
Add water to make the required amount.

If large quantities of the above mixture are required, it is more
economical for the grower himself to make the copper carbonate. Pro-
ceed as follows: Dissolve 12 pounds of copper sulfate (blue vitriol) in
12 gallons of water in a barrel. Dissolve 15 pounds of sal soda in 15 gal-
lons of water (preferably hot). Allow the solution to cool; then add the
sal soda solution to the copper sulfate solution, pouring slowly in order
to prevent the mixture from working up and running over. A fine pre-
cipitate which will settle at the bottom after the mixture has stood about
twelve hours is formed. Siphon off the clear liquid above. Wash the
precipitate by adding clear water, stirring and again allowing to settle.
Siphon off the clear water, strain the precipitate through muslin, and
allow it to dry. This is copper carbonate. The above amounts will
make about six pounds.

MAY. 1908

BULLETIN 254

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

DEPARTMENT OF SOILS (EXTENSION WORK)

DRAINAGE IN NEW YORK

Bv EL^IER O. FIPPIN

ITHACA, N. Y.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY.

ORGANIZATION

Of The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station.

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.

ROBERT H. TREAIAN, Trustee of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station.

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

EXPERIMENTING STAFF.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.

T. LYTTLETON LYON, Soil Investigations.

H. J. WEBBER, Plant Breeding.

B. M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology.
JOHN L STONE, Farm Practice.
JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry.
MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.
GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.
ELMER 0. FIPPIN, Soil Investigations.
W. A. STOCKING, Jr., Dairy Bacteriology.
HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.
G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops.
LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.
CHARLES S. WILSON, Horticulture.

M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.
CHARLES F. CLARK, Plant Breeding.
JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry.
CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology.
J. B. NORTON, Plant Breeding.

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry.
P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

D. REDDICK, Plant Pathology-.

E. R. MINNS, Farm Practice.
G. A. CRABB, Soils.

The regular bulletins of the Station arc sent free to persons residing in New
York State who request them.

230

CONTENTS

Purposes of bulletin. Page.

General statement 232

I. Types of drainage.

a. General grouping of land according to argicultural value 235

(l.) Non-agricultural land 235

(2.) Elevated agricultural land of hilly character 235

(3.) Low lying agricultural portion of State where swamp and

heavy clay is most abundant 2},(i

b. Types of drainage conditions 236

(i.) Pronounced swamp and marsh land 236

(2. ) Heavy clay soil 238

(3.) Rolling to hilly land of dififerent elevations 240

II. Some historic phases of drainage in New York 242

(i.) John Johnston, Geneva 243

(2.) Theron G. Yoemans, Walworth 249

III. Benefits of thoro drainage 251

(i.) Removes excess water and firms soil 251

(2.) Improves physical condition of soil 252

(3.) Increases amount of available moisture 252

(4.) Promotes soil aeration 253

(5.) Promotes higher average soil temperature 253

(6.) Increases available food supply 254

(7.) Permits plants to make better use of food and moisture supply. 255

(8.) Reduces winter injury from " heaving " 255

(9.) Reduces injury from erosion 256

(10.) Increases yield of crops 256

IV. The practice of underdrainage 258

a. Kinds of systems 259

(I.) Natural 259

(2. ) Gridiron 259

b. Laving out tile drain systems 259

(l.) Fall 261

(2. ) Depth 262

(3.) Outlets ; . . . 263

c. Digging the ditch 264

(i.) Hand tools and cciuipments 264

(2.) Ditching machines 265

(3.) Grading 266

d. Laying and covering the tile 267

(l.) Laying tile ■2(^7

(2.) Protecting joints 267

(3.) Filling ditch 267

(4.) Sinks and silt basins 268

e. Size of Lile 269

f. Distance apart of drains 271

g. Kinds of tile 272

V. Cost of tile drainage 2.-72,

VI. Permanency of tile drains '^■1^

VII. Stone drains 277

VIII. Open drains 277

Summary 278

Appendix 279

( I.) Drainage laws 279

(2.) List of tile dealers 283

231

DRAINAGE IN NEW YORK.

The primary purposes of this bulletin are first, to call specific attention
to the intense and wide-spread need of better farm drainage in the State ;
second, to recommend and urge the substitution of tile drainage for most
of the surface drainage in use at present; third, to get in touch with all
those persons in the State who have had experience with tile drains and
with those who will install them in the future to determine (a) how large
the results are which accrue from tile drainage on all types of soil and
with all kinds of crops and farm practice; (b) the best methods of lay-
ing tile on different soil types; and (c) the cost of tile drainage on
different kinds of soil and under different farm conditions.

The general practice of no other single improvement in the manage-
ment of New York soils promises to give as large net returns as thorough
drainage. The cultivated lands of the State have long passed their virgin
condition of productiveness and to obtain the largest possible crops, it is
now necessary to practice the most thorough and modern methods of
tillage. This does not mean that our soils are exhausted and no longer
capable of giving the large crops obtained when the land was first cleared.
They may be and have been made to produce as large or even larger crops
than were first obtained. It means that more exact and thorough methods
of soil management must be practiced by the farmer. By means of
nature's long course rotation, most of the land had, at that early time,
reached a condition of good tilth. By a long continued process of selection,
the plants adapted to special conditions — as swamp, sand or clay — had
been secured. The soil was loose and open as a result of both the develop-
ment of plant roots and the accumulation of vegetable mold and humus
which were incorporated with -the soil through natural processes of cultiva-
tion. This large accumulation of organic remains put the soil in good phy-
sical condition and tended to keep it so as long as the organic matter w^as
present in considerable amounts. But in the large majority of cases indif-
ferent tillage methods have permitted the loss of this organic matter —
humus — to take place more rapidly than the accumulation processes with
the result that the soil became lighter colored and less favorable physically
to the development of crops. Along with this loss of organic matter and
the less thorough permeation by plant roots came pronounced physical
changes of far reaching effects. The soil tended more to become hard,
the rain water moved more rapidly through or over it and the subsequent
rapid drying caused it to become hard and dense. Such soil requires
more careful tillage to maintain its former good tilth. This deterioration of
physical condition is accompanied by a change in the relation of the soil
to the natural rainfall, ^''ariations in the accumulation and movement of

232

Drainage ix New York.

233

the soil -moisture and drainage water become readily apparent and ex-
tremes of wetness and drought alternate frequently.

Here comes in the second distinction between nature's method and
that of man in utilizing land. He wishes to grow a particular crop and
will plant it in a variety of soil including land of a naturally wet condition.
This condition he may ameliorate to a greater or less degree by various
cultural practices. Nature, on the other hand, accepts the natural condi-
tion of the soil, whether it be wet or dry, coarse or fine, loose or dense, and
by a process of selection and association, develops on such land the vegeta-
tion adapted to growth in such a situation.

The farmer must adopt nature's methods of crop production to a degree,
but he may go farther and improve on them in certain directions. He
adapts his crops to the soil, but he also attempts to modify the soil to
meet the needs of the crop he desires to produce. He does this by
drainage, tillage and the use of manures and fertilizers.

Clay soil badiy in need 0; tiic arauung. Xeii) York.

This is the proper order in which always to think of these operations —
drainage, tillage and manures • — because good tillage can never be prac-
ticed unless the land is well drained and fertilizers and manures are of
little or no value without good tillage. This is especially true for fine
textured soils. Most of the desirable conditions of the soil, which result
from tillage, are only obtained in well drained soil and in poorly drained
soil, these are more likely to render the bad conditions more acute. In
farm practice, a very large amount of energy and money is wasted on
tillage and manures because of the failure to recognize this fundamental
fact — • that the soil must first be thoroughly drained.

A clear conception of the necessity for drainage involves an under-
standing of the necessary conditions for the growth of plants and the
effects of the various tillage operations. Practically all farm crops have
the same general requirements for growth. They differ only in the char-

234 Bulletin 254.

acter or intensity of these essential conditions. They must have food,
moisture, heat, hght and air and they must be mechanically supported in a
congenial manner. All of these conditions, except the light, are modified
in some way by the soil which is simply a medium for the supply of the
essential factors of growth. Anything which modifies these in a way un-
favorable to a particular plant hinders the development of that plant.

Practically all of the crops grown in New York are land plants and are
adapted to growing in a moist soil and not in a wet soil. Herein they differ
from water plants. Therefore, they will not grow normally in a saturated
soil. A saturated soil is one which has all its pores filled with water. In
such a soil if the water is free to flow out under the influence of gravity,
part of it will pass away. But a large part of such moisture — from 40 to
70 per cent — will be retained by the soil. The soil holds it, causing a film
to overspread all of the particles and to fill the smallest spaces. This
moisture which is retained is called capillary water and is the form suited to
the use of ordinary crops. It can only be lost by evaporation. It gives
the soil a nicely moist appearance. It produces the condition of wetness
for which the farmer should strive. The retention by any cause of any
part of the soil water, which woulfl flow away if free to do so, is directly
injurious to ordinary growing crops in proportion to its amount. Drain-
age is the process of removing this undesirable excess. It must be re-
moved before tillage can be properly practiced and before that congenial
and sanitary environment, desired by all our common crops, can be obtained.

New York State has a very large area of farm land on which the
drainage should be improved and it is not confined to the areas of an
acknowledged swamp or marsh condition,. It includes even larger areas
now laid out in fields and regularly cultivated to crops.

I. TYPES OF DRAINAGE.

There are two general types of drainage, (i) Open or surface drains,
consisting of any sort of depression in which water will accumulate and
through which it will flow. In these there is a great range in efficiency de-
pending on their mode of construction, the soil conditions and their state
of repair. (2) Closed or sub-surface drains, composed of any available
porous stratum through which the water will flow more rapidly than
through the natural soil. Nature often constructs such subterranean
drains of strata of sand, gravel or limestone directly beneath the low or
impervious stratum. Man constructs similar porous strata of stone, wood,
tile or any other available material. Of these materials, the tile drains are
most efficient and are the ones with which this bulletin is primarily con-
cerned.

Drainage in New York.

235

A. General grouping of land according to agricultural value.

The land of the State may be divided into three groups, the location and
relative extent of which are shown by the map on this page.

These are : first, the non-agricultural mountainous land ; second, the
remaining high, rolling to hilly farm land of the State ; third, the more
level portion of the State of low elevation where is found nearly all of
the heavy clay and the light sandy soil and in addition, the greater part
of the pronounced marshy or swamp land.

(i) In the first or non-agricultural group is comprised all of the moun-
tainous areas of the State where the country in general is too rough and

The drainage districts into which A'czv York state may be divided.

(i). Non-agricultural land.

(2). Highland sections agricultural land.

(3). Lake plains and river valleys. The most level agricultural land.

broken and the soil covering too. thin and stony to permit the practice of
farming. These areas are occupied by forests. The only cultivable land
occurs in ribbon-like areas in the valleys and is of comparatively small
extent.

(2) The second and third groups constitute the farming land of the
.State. The third group includes the lozvcst part of the State in point of
general elevation and in which the largest extent of heavy clay land and of
pronounced swamps are found. The soil is not all clay or swamp by any
means, but is of a great diversity of textural condition. They include, be-
sides the clay and the muck soil, even larger areas of rolling upland loams.

236 Bulletin 254.

silt loams and stony loams and more level areas of sandy soil of varying
texture. The belt of country skirting the southern shore of Lake Ontario
is characterized by an undulating topography composed of rounded, lenti-
cular hills with their long axes arranged in a northerly and southerly di-
rection and separated by depressions which are frequently swampy and gen-
erally poorly drained. The clay and the sandy land is generally fairly
level. In this area is included much of the best farming land in the State.

(3) The second group constitutes the remainder of the State and lies
at a high average elevaiion and with the exception of the Hudson Valley
portion forms dissected plateaus. It includes most of the highland area in
the southern part of the State and with the exception of the large valleys
which traverse it, the soil covering conforms fairly close to the outline of
the underlying rock surface which occurs usually at a depth of from 4 to
30 feet. The soil is in the main a moderately fine textured loam of a more
or less stony character. Large areas on the divides are nearly level or
gently undulating but adjacent to the stream courses it is likely to be steep
and broken. The undulation is of such a character as to develop many
shallow basin-shaped or broad V-shaped areas and these, together with the
character of the soil and the structure of the country, produce poorly
drained land in abundance. The further fact that over large areas the
underlying bed rock is a rather impervious shale and that the soil mantle
is thin permits poor drainage to be accentuated by the seepage of water
along the surface of the rock forming spring areas on both strongly sloping
and on quite level land.

The large valleys have, for the most part, a considerable filling of
gravelly, sandy and silty soils often arranged as high terraces which have
been more or less completely removed by the action of the stream which
occupies the lowest line of the valley and along which is the ribbon-shaped
area of bottom land somewhat subject to overflow. These valley soils are
sometimes poorly drained as a result of local conditions such as texture
and position with reference to the upland slope. It is a common experience
to find wet land at the foot of a slope where the valley material joins the
main wall of the valley. These lands are rendered wet by the seepage of
water down the face of the rock, through or over the thin soil covering.

B. TYPES OF DRAINAGE CONDITIONS.

A general survey of the land of the State reveals three groups 'of con-
ditions with reference to tlrainage.

(i) The pronounced marsh or s^vainp land which is of practically no
crop value, except for ' some timber, until better drainage is established.
In the aggregate such land is of large extent in the State and is found
most abundantly in the second "division. It occurs as numerous, usually
small, irregular areas, in some places occupying the pass between drumlin

Drainage in New York.

^17

hills, along streams which occupy such positions and in other places it
forms a fringe around lakes or occupies the site of former lakes, which
have been filled up to this swampy condition. The first condition is type-
fied by the numerous swampy areas in Wayne county; the second is typi-
cally developed in southern Monroe county and around 'Oneida lake.
Both phases are most largely developed in the region adjacent to Lake
Ontario. Similar conditions are also ,' found in other parts of the State,
the most notable examples of which are the Walkill valley in Orange
county and the southern shore of Long Island where much land is sub-
ject to tidal overflow and the reclamation of which often involves the con-

The result of poor drainage in a peach orchard
Many trees missing.

struction of levees. Much of this marshy or swamp land consists of large
accumulations of organic remains forming muck and peat. The remainder
consists of variable material rich in organic matter derived from the wash
from the soils at higher elevations.

These areas are low and flat and it is frequently very difficult to get a
satisfactory outlet. They also involve several practical difficulties in "the
construction of drains. They are so fully saturated with water that its
removal involves the readjustment of the soil, particularly if it is muck or
peat. This readjustment should be permitted to take place before any
form of closed drain is installed. The conditions implied by 'the term
" quick sand " also require similar treatment.

238 Bulletin 254.

This land is wet, not because of its impervious character, but because its
location is favorable to the accumulation of water from higher soils either
by surface flow or through springs. The reclamation of such land involves
the control of this drainage water from other land in such a way that it
does not interfere with the low land.

The soil in these marshy places is often the most productive in the
country when well drained and constitute a highly important part of the
great soil reserve of the State. In some of the Central States where large
areas of similar soil existed, which have been drained, they give some of
the largest yields of the staple crops as well as of truck and other special
crops. Such, for example, is the Clyde series of soils of New York, Ohio,
Michigan, etc., and the Miami black clay loam in the north central states.

(2) In the second division of the State, as made in this paper, is found
nearly all of the heavy clay soils. Much of this region has been formed
under lake conditions during earlier times with the result that the sedi-
ments brought into these lakes, either local or general, were sorted and de-
posited in strata of ditTering texture. In some places they are clay, in
other places they are silt, sand or gravel. Since the clay represents the
most quiet conditions of deposition it forms the most nearly level land, any
undulation being the result of the uneven surface upon which the deposit
was made. Consequently much of the truly clay soil embraced in the
Dunkirk, Clyde, Vergennes and Galveston series of soil has an even, and
often, flat surface. The impervious character of such material, combined
with its level topography, permit the retention of the rainfall on the surface.
It differs from the first group in that there is much less accumulation of the
rainfall from other areas of soil. There is some accumulation of water
due to the undulations of the surface, but in the main the problem is one of
handling the rainfall which normally falls upon the clay area. This
further important observation should be made. On heavy clay soil, the
subsoil is frequently not saturated with water in the sense in which sandy
soil is saturated. The water is held on the surface. It moves through the
soil very slowly, an important factor in its removal being evaporation.
Such water is especially injurious because of its " stagnant " condition. It
very completely cuts off the soil from free circulation of air.

This water must, in the main, be removed by surface methods. This
does not necessarily mean open ditches. These are now very generally used
in the State on such land and it is one of the purposes of this bulletin to
call attention to the better method. This method is the use of tile drains.
On land as level as are many of these clay soils, the open ditches are often
hastily and poorly made. They are rough and in a short time become
clogged by weeds. Their fall is too small to permit any rapid movement
of water, and further, they generally have a ridge of earth on cither side
which hinders the entrance of the water. These disadvantages are in

Drainage in New York.

239

*• ~f?

addition to the inconvenience to tillage and harvesting operations and to
the general inefficiency of such methods of drainage as practiced.

On the other hand, the use of tile drains under these circumstances is a
distinctly different proposition from what it is on coarser textured and
loose soils of silt, sand and gravel. The most obvious advantages of the
tile are that they will be well laid and will afford a clean, smooth channel
for the flow of the water. With such a smooth channel, the water moved
by a small fall will be much greater than in the average surface ditch.
Further, the average surface drain is a shallow channel made by a single
shovel plow of some sort and takes no account of the variations in elevation
of the land further than to follow the visable water course, which is often
entirely inadequate. Tile drains, on the other hand, are laid to grade with
a fairly uniform fall on any course.

As stated
above, the
methods of
tiling coarse
textured soil
do not apply to
fine textured
soil. I n the
former case,
they are laid
fairly deep to
lower the
water table be-
low the root
zone. Here is
the first indi-
cation that a
sub - drainage
system should
always be adapted to
general drainage. Xo

> J" '

-"m^^--

.^-''<r..

■fa.

A thorough system of surface drains in a ncialy
seeded grain Held.

the local conditions of soil, slope and
fixed rules can be given. But in the
matter of depth this principle applies on clay soil. The tile should be laid
as shallow as is consistent with the climatic conditions and the fall. The
aim is to remove the surface water as quickly as possible and before it
does injury to the crop if one occupies the land. To do this, there must
be easy access of the water to the tile. For this reason, they should be
shallow — two feet or less — and should be connected with the surface
by means of stone filters and other porous media which will be described
further along in this bulletin. The water enters the tile through the joints
and in clay soil it reaches these through the cracks, decayed root passages

240 Bulletin 254.

and animal burrows. The better drained the soil the more numerous will
be these openings. Consequently it is proper to find a gradual increase in
efficiency in such a drainage system for a number of years after its in-
stallation.

In laying drains shallow consideration must be given to the effect of
frost. This involves both the preservation of the tile and their alignment
and grade. Through co-operation with farmers throughout the State, it is
hoped to determine experimentally by means of trial systems the import-
ance of these difficulties in practice. The available data is not of a suffi-
ciently convincing character. There is considerable reason for believing
that if the best quality of hard burned or vitrified tile is- used there will
be very little difficulty on either score. This idea is supported by the
practical experience of farmers, although it is a common opinion that a
tile drain should never be permitted to freeze.

These suggestions apply to all that great belt of country along lakes
Erie, Ontario and Qiamplain and in the Hudson valley. On the large
areas of clay soil here found, surface drainage is almost universally
practiced.

All clay formations are likely to be underlain by a more coarse textured
stratum consisting of either sand or gravel. In planning a drainage
system on clay soil, it is always important to examine the soil to a depth
of three or four feet at a number of places to determine whether such a
sandy layer is present. If it is found within 3 1-2 feet the tile should be
placed as near its surface as possible, since the soil water will reach the
tile most rapidly through this porous stratum. Under such conditions it
is especially necessary that filter basins connected with the surface in low
places should be constructed to hasten the removal of surface water.

Conversely, on sandy soil observations should be made to determine
the presence or absence of a considerable clay stratum beneath the sand.
If it is found within from two to four feet of the surface, the tile should
be laid on top of the clay.

Associated with the clay soils are considerable areas of sand and sandy
loam soil, some of which have poor drainage. The areas are usually
small and are the result of some local peculiarity of structure. On these
the generally accepted principles of drainage apply. The tile should be
placed at a depth of from three to four feet and at a greater distance
apart than on clay soil.

(3) The third drainage division of the State, includes all of the upland
soils of roUiug and hilly topography and is much larger in extent than
either of the other divisions. It is also the division on which the least
drainage is practiced at present. In many places some stone drains have
been constructed with the stone picked from the fields. These systems
are usually of small extent and in the main have been in the ground for

Drainage in New York.

241

many years and they have frequently been rendered ineffective by the
burrowing of animals and from other causes.

There is also much less feeling of the need of underdrainage on high
rolling lands than on the low flat clay lands or marshy lands. An excess
of water does not persist at the surface for so long a time as on the other
classes of soil and therefore its effects are not so readily apparent. There
is also the feeling that any land which has a strong surface slope cannot
be in need of underdrainage since the surface drainage is entirely adequate.
This idea should be carefully examined before acceptance. Very fre-
quently it is entirely wrong. A very much larger part of such hilly land
would be benefited by drainage than is generally believed.

The land in-
cluded in this
division occurs
in both the sec-
ond and third
group of the
State. It may,
however, be di-
vided into two
phases. These
are, first, the
1 o \v , rolling
areas of stony
loam to clay
loam soil south
of Lake On-
tario as far as

the latitude of Geneva or a little beyond and through the ]\Iohawk val-
ley. Also the upland soils in the Hudson valley and the northern part
of Long Island. These generally have a subsoil of variable texture and
structure. Sometimes it is gravelly and sandy, but often it is a dense
stony or gravelly loam quite impervious to water. In such cases drain-
age is needed. In this phase of soil conditions, drainage is not as fre-
quently needed as in the second phase of soil conditions.

The second phase includes all of the high, plateau soils of a rolling
or hilly topography and comprises practically all of the second group in
which the soil conditions are divided. Here the \"olusia series of soil
predominates. Their surface conforms closely to the surface of the under-
lying rock. The subsoil is usually fine textured, but stony and rather
compact and impervious. This condition is increasingly true toward the
southern part of the State on the Volusia silt loam. The soil, to a depth
of from 12 to 18 inches, is generally loose and fairly friable but below

C/aj' soil being plozi'cd in eight step lands. The
" dead furrovjs " serve as surface drains.

242 Bulletin 254

this depth, the subsoil is incHned to be very impervious to water, which
condition is aggravated by the presence of many shale chips. This makes
a very compact layer, which holds the water and resists the entrance of
plant roots. On such land the surface soil readily absorbs the rainfall.
But the total amount absorbed is limited by the shallow depth of the
porous layer and the removal by percolation of the excess is very greatly
hindered. Its removal is effected slowly by evaporation and by percolation
through the soil along the surface of the dense subsoil. This condition
tends to keep the subsoil wet so much of the time that it does not have
an opportunity to become loosened up by drying or the action of plant
roots. Further, the saturation of the soil during so much of the crop
season, greatly hinders the extension of tlie plant roots. They develop
shallow and are quickly afifected by periods of dry weather. Cultural
operations are longer delayed by the wetness of the soil and the removal
of so large a part of the moisture by evaporation, keeps the soil cold and
materially changes its climate. This, in turn, reacts seriously on all of
the functions of the crop and consequently upon the profit.

There are also many swales or shallow depressions, as mentioned
above, where the drainage is defective because of both the impervious
character of the soil and the accumulation of surface drainage. These
areas would be especially productive if drained. Any drainage system
that is established should begin with these low places and may be extended
to higher land as its benefits are demonstrated. On all this hill land the
system of tile drains will be determined by the surface features, but one
important principle should be observed. The drains should extend directly
down the slope rather than diagonally across the slope. If they are
place diagonally, their efficiency will be mucli reduced by their limited
drafts on the down hil'l side and by the leakage from the joints where
the tile passes through moderately dry soil.

II. SOME HISTORICAL PHASES OF DRAINAGE IN NEW YORK.

The early drainage practice in New York and in America in general
was very largely modeled after the English practice of the first half of
the nineteenth century. The so-called government scheme of drainage was
then in vogue and two general schools of practice were recognized. Mr.
James Smith of Deanston, advocated shallow drains — not to exceed 30
inches — and as fre(|uent as from 10 to 24 feet. Josiah Parks, on the
other hand, advocated deep drains — 4 feet a minimum — and a greater
interval — from 21 lo 30 feet apart. Both gentlemen advocated the sys-
tematic ])lacing of the drains at these respective intervals in naturally dry
soil as well as in wet soil. Tliat is to say, very little consideration was
given to the variations in the soil and the local conditions. Consequently
such promiscuous burying of tile often resulted in large expenditures of
money without corresponding returns. The failures of drainage to pro-

Drainage in New York.

243

duce net returns in such cases has probably been more effective than any
other one thing to prevent the more general and thorough adoption of the
practice. Necessarily the improvement involves a very considerable ex-
penditure of money per acre and the common feeling that the tile must
be placed near together and at regular intervals to be at all effective, has
deterred many from attempting the improvement. Drainage, like almost
any other farm practice, cannot be performed by a " rule of thumb " but
requires intelligence and care to adapt it to the local conditions of soil,
rainfall, climate, sur-
face features a n d
seepage in order that
the largest net re-
turns may be secured,
(i) JnJin Johnston.
New York may well
take pride in the fact
that she was the pio-
neer in America in
the practice of tile
drainage for agricul-
tural purposes. That
distinction was given
to her by ]\Ir. John
Johnston, whose like-
ness at the age of
eighty years appears
on this page. There
is the further and
more important dis-
tinction that j\Ir.
Johnston was espe-
cially successful in
the practice and the great increase in crops, which resulted on his farm
after he had installed tile drains, may still be c^uoted as among the most
clear and forcible examples to be had anywhere of the money benefits
as well as the personal satisfaction which results from tile drainage.

He was a Scotchman who came to America and purchased a farm
about four miles southeast of Geneva, in Seneca county, in 1821. It may
be presumed that his methods of tillage and of general farm management
were about as careful and thorough in the early years of his venture as in
subsecjuent years. Hut he says, " I never made any money at farming until
I had tile drained my land." He laid his first tile in 1837 and the 300
acres of land which he farmed contained at the time of his death in 1880,

John JoJinston at the age of <So years.
He laid the first tile drains in America about 1837.
(From an old file of American Agriculturist.)

244

Bulletin 254.

between 60 and 70 miles of tile drains. They were gradually installed
during thirty-five years and are as clear a proof as can be had of the
conviction of Mr, Johnston that tile drainage pays when properly done.
He was a man of limited means and depended upon the returns from the
land for the money to make the drainage improvement. The first tile
were installed with borrowed capital and after that time he depended upon
the profits from increased crops on one piece of land, which he had drained,
to install the drainage on the next field. So convincing were his results,

not only to himself but also to his
neighbors, that from 1852 to i860,
Mr. Swan — a man of means and a
son-in-law of Mr. Johnston who
owned 335 acres of land adjacent to
the Johnston farm on the north and
since widely known as the Rose Hill
estate — completely and thoroughly
drained this lanrl installing, it is said,
about 75 miles of tile.

The drainage system on both of
these farms, while resembling in some
respects the English systems, differed
in tliis fundamental point, that they
were adapted to the soil and the natu-
ral drainage conditions. While Mr.
Johnston's ideals of thorough drain-
age may have been, as he says, from
two to four rods apart according to
the character of the soil, he very
carefully studied the surface feat-
ures of the underground seepage and
adapted the size, depth and distance
apart of the tile to these conditions.
The land drained by Mr. Johnston lies adjacent to the head of Seneca
lake and while no tliorough study of the soil types in this region has been
made, the soils appear to belong to three general types. These are the
Dunkirk clay next to the lake and Dunkirk loam higher on the slope with
some phase of dark alluvial loam in the depressions. The general surface
is rolling as shown in figure 188 which is taken from near the lake look-
ing toward the farmstead. There are no sharp breaks but gentle undula-
tions giving a range in elevation between different parts of the farm of
perhaps 80 or 100 feet. The clay type is especially fine textured and
naturally dense ^ and this property is clearly shown in a large area of such
soil a mile or more to the north of the farm at the head of Seneca lake.
Much the larger part of the farm consists of the Dunkirk loam which is

Fig. 188. — Outlet of one of the sys-
tems of tile drani on the Johnston farm
as it appears at the present time. The
U tile at the left has served in the out-
let for upwards of -fifty years. In the
background is shown the type of land
drained.

Drainage in New York.

245

a rather heavy phase of the type verging on clay loam. These types
belong with the second drainage division made in the State.

The third type of soil embraces the depressions between _the ridges
which receive the natural drainage from the adjacent higher land along
with the soil wash. , In such places water loving vegetation throve and
gave them the characteristics of marsh or swamp. But it was not this
very wet land that Air. Johnston first drained. He says, " Encouraged
by a considerable in-
crease of products de-
rived from my farm
from draining, I deter-
mined to extend the sys-
tem as rapidly as con-
venience and circum-
stance would permit.
Upon examining, it ap-
peared necessary to pos-
sess a piece of ground
belonging to a neighbor,
that I might secure a
good and sure outlet for
the water from my up-
land fields that required
drainage in places. With this in view, I purchased ten and three-fifths
acres of low land saturated with water. A part of this land, say about
four acres, within from twelve to eighteen inches of ,the surface was a
black vegetable mold lying on a stratum of clay of the same depth under
which I found a hard bottom for my tiles not over three feet in depth.
I felt persuaded that those ten acres were wet from my own upland as
well as from my neighbor's wet land adjoining. The first ditch I dug was
directly on a line betwixt the land I got from my neighbor and that ^ he
still owns. This I found cut off all the water on that side. I then com-
menced draining that ten and three-fifths acres ; also about thirty acres of
upland. A large proportion of the upland did not require draining. In
the two pieces which made into one field containing about forty acres I
laid 1072.5 rods of drain which have drained^the whole extent in a thorough
manner. * * * The first year after completing the drains in this
•field, the whole or nearly the whole, upland and all, was planted to corn.
The season was not favorable for that crop in this neighborhood, yet the
crop was fair, say forty bushels shelled corn ^ to the acre. The low ground
was excellent where nothing but coarse grass grew for twenty years before.
This year, 185 1, I harvested from this field a crop of wheat and a heavier

Fig. iSq. — Gold and silver pieces presented to
John Johnston in recognition of his services to agricul-
tural interests in the practice of tile drainage.

246

Bulletin 254.

crop I never saw stand up. * * * The wet ground got from my
neighbor was the source of much curiosity to all around as none would
believe that wheat could be ripened on land so long saturated with water.
The result was a crop of wheat from that ground abundant in quantity
and excellent in quality."

Such a combination of conditions is quite typical of much of the State.
The marshy land belongs to the first drainage division. When ]\Ir. Johns-
ton purchased his farm it was said to be " poor and worn " and the first
seventeen years of his experience with it were calculated to support that
conclusion since he confessed that he could make no money. But by
careful study, he perceived to what most of his trouble was due. He ob-
served the excess of moisture and the " winter heavinsj " which raised his

Fig. 190. — The Jo!uisti.>i: homestead near Geneva,

before 1825.

i\'. F. Buiuiing,s creetcd

crops out of the ground. He said in 1852, " I was, many years ago, satis-
fied of the necessity of removing in some economical way the surplus water
which saturated the soil and too often interfered with the growth or
maturity of the crop ; not only with wheat but also with grain and clover."

The general necessity for drainage had been impressed upon him very
early in life by his grandfather in Scotland, who said to him " Verily all
the airth needs draining." On his way to America and before he was out
of his native land he observed the burning of tile for drainage purposes
and when he found his own soil " cold and wet " he apparently remem-
bered his grandfather's advice and the " crockery being burned in the
Scotch field," for in 1835 he imported from Scotland a few tile and
initiated the making of others. Through his efforts his neighbor, John
Delafield, imported a Scraggs tile machine from England in 1848. His
first tile were of the horseshoe and sole type. Later he used round tile.

Unfortunately there does not appear to be any plot showing the loca-

Drainage ix New York.

247

tion and arrangement of the tile put in by Mr. Johnston. We know of
them only from his own statements. But how effective was his system
is well known from the results which have been observed from the very
beginning of his work along this line. He was widely recognized in the
State as an authority on practical drainage matters. In 1852 he was
awarded first prize by the New York State Agricultural Society for a
paper giving an account of his methods and results in tile draining. For

Fig. 191. — Wheat stubble on Johnston farm which yielded 44 bushels per acre in
1907. A'ote the zvcll granulated condition of the lump of soil at the left of
the cut.

a number of years he was chairman of the committee on drainage of the
above namerl society and did much in that capacity for the extension of
the practice. It is interesting to note in the proceedings of this society
in the fifties and sixties how the reports on draining center in the Seneca
Lake region presumably largely as a result of ]\Ir. Johnston's example.
The esteem of the man and the recognition given his work by his asso-
ciates is shown by the several gold and silver pieces presented to him from
time to time by different gentlemen and associations in the State. Cuts of

248 Bulletin 254.

these pieces made from a photograph by C. G. Elhott are shown in figure
189.

The productiveness of Air. Johnston's farm is widely known. A neigh-
boring farmer writing in 1866 remarked that he was going to build a barn
" after my land is drained and I have had two or three of John Johnston's
wheat crops." The farm was devoted primarily to wheat but hay and
some other grain was also grown. The yields of all these crops was tm-
usually large for the region and also for the present day. For 1847, he
reports a yield of 83 bushels of shelled corn, considered the largest ever
raised in the county up to that time. On the same piece of tile drained
land, he reports similar large yields of barley and hay in subsequent years.
Nor has this large productiveness disappeared up to the present time. Mr.
Charles Rose Mellen who has owned the farm for a number of years, also
gets similarly large yields of the same crops grown by Mr. Johnston. Mr.
Mellen takes much pride in the historic features of the place as well as
the results of the tile drainage. He considers the tile still in good work-
ing condition. Occasionally it is necessary to replace a tile but that they
continue doing good service, after fifty or more years, is shown by
figure 188 which is a view of the outlet of one of the large mains where
two 6 inch U tile were laid side by side. The tiles were flowing full of
water and on the left bank is one which has served at the outlet for over
fifty years and is still in a good state of preservation even under the un-
usually severe conditions to which an outlet tile is subjected. A nearer
view of this is shown in figure 215. The surface features of land drained
by this system is shown in figure 190.

Mr. Mellen showed the writer a piece of wheat stubble which produced
during the season of 1907 an average of 44 bushels of wheat over a
number of acres. Figure 191 shows some of the stubble and a block
of the soil illustrating its well granulated condition. The stubble was so
even in character that there was very little choice in selecting the place
for the photograph. Mr. Mellen reports that all his crops yield in the
same generous proportions. In figure 190 is shown the Johnston home-
stead built in 1822 and also occupied by Mr. Mellen until 1908 when he
moved into the new residence shown in the background in figure 188
which also shows the old residence. All this is the product of the land.

But it would be misleading to leave the impression that all this large
productiveness is the immediate result of tile draining. . It is an example
of the point made above, viz., that good drainage should precede good
tillage and the use of manures. Mr. Johnston was a good farmer. He
practiced, as does Mr. Mellen, good tillage. He grew clover and he kept
some stock, the manure from which was carefully applied to the land.
And by the assistance of thorough drainage, he obtained large returns
from these. Mr. Johnston' died at Geneva in November 1880 at the age
of ninety years.

Drainage in New York.

249

(2) Theron G. Yoemans. The name of John Delafield has been men-
tioned as the importer of the first tile machine — a Scraggs. One other
man deserves recognition in this group. Theron G. Yoemans of Walworth,
Wayne county, very early became a disciple of Mr. Johnston in the matter
of tile drainage and these three men — Johnston, Delafield and Yoemans —
were assiduous in spreading the gospel of better drainage. Unlike the soil
around Geneva, Mr. Yoemans' farm of over 300 acres consisted mainly
of Miami stony loam and the surface is rather more rolling than the land
around Rose Hill. It may be classed with the first phase of the third
group made in the State. The general lay of the surface is shown in
figure 192. It will be noticed that the differences in elevation are very con-
siderable and will amount to a hundred feet or more within rather short
distances. But the slopes, while steep, are never abrupt and are seldom

-f_|__J-_U*^!l

A

Blllt»-""""""'«"""««i'"'»'niiiiw'""';v*"«"i"ii(-is" MI»wi»iii«/„iiMiiwi»,«ii«

l^..;. — .

:vv//i M: '"'^i '^'"^'y-^.tr, •■■■ -.-^ ■ 'r- : V/A Vrt < v^., . ^

(^•:^;^v^;'^v.::,^.';^

Fig. 192. — ■Rolling character of surface in Miami stony loam region adjacent to
Lake Ontario. Note intervening szvampy depression, which is characteristic.

too steep to be tilled. Another characteristic of this Lake Ontario region
is shown in this figure 192. Between the hills is frequently found marshy
or even swampy land. Figure 194 shows at short range an area of muck
soil flooded because of the inadequacy of the open ditch through the center
and which could very well be made large enough to handle the drainage
and preserve the crops. But Mr. Yoemans did not begin tile draining the
low land. He was a fruit grower and nurseryman and did his tile drain-
ing on the slopes of Miami stony loam adjacent to the village of Wal-
worth. Probably one-half or more of his farm was in fruit and his dwarf
pear orchard has gained wide renown, both because of its early success
and the thoroughness with which the land on which it stood was drained.
The trees stand 10 feet apart with a tile drain between every other row
at a depth of from 2 to 2^ feet. The trees were planted in 1852 and
almost every one lived until a year or two ago when part of them was
removed because they seemed to have become too old to bear. Some of
the trees still remain large and thrifty. Mr. Yoemans said that on much
of this sort of land many trees were killed by freezing of the soil but that
drainage remedied all of this.

In 1852 Mr. Yoemans was awarded second prize for a paper on drain-

250

Bulletin 254.

age at the same time Mr. Johnston was awarded first prize. Accompany-
ing his paper, which appears in the transactions of the New York Agri-
cultural Society for that year, is a plot of the tile drains installed on a
piece of land of twenty acres now occupied by healthy old apple trees set
by him and this plot is reproduced in figure 193. Like the Johnston farm
most of the tile are still in good working condition except that some of
the outlets have become closed. The marked beneficial effects of the drains
is still recognized by the present owners. Ninety acres of the farm which
had 65 acres of bearing orchard including the Dwarf pear orchard set by
Mr. Yoemans were sold, a few years ago, to the present owner, Mr. G.

Fig. 193. — Drainage system of 1200 rods on 20 acres of Miami stony loam. Yoe-
mans farm, Walworth, N. Y. Arrangement determined by topography of
land. Sizes of file: A-B, three 4-inch file; B-C, tzvo yinch tile; C-D, one
2,-inch tile and one i-inch tile; D-E, one yinch tile. Remainder of system,
one 2-inch tile.

R. Wignalls. at a very substantial price. So that it may be considered
that a very considerable degree of permanency attaches to this type of
land improvement.

In spite of the fact that New York State was the pioneer in tile drain-
age in America, she has fallen far behind several of the newer states of
the central west in this type of improvement. In these states where ex-
isted large areas of land entirely too wet for farming purposes without
artificial drainage, tile -draining has been very generally adopted as a neces-
sity, not only on such swampy soils but also upon the upland soil.

New York State needs to recall her early prestige and to remember
that very large areas of her soils are not yet beyond the need of better
artificial drainage and particularly of tile draining and that large net profits
as well as much satisfaction awaits those who take up this improvement
with intelligence and discrimination. Some of these benefits may now be
summarized.

Drainage in New York.

251

III. BENEFITS OF THOROUGH DRAINAGE.

Because of the fundamental character of the process of drainage, Its
effects are numerous and far reaching. Ten of the most important may
be given as follows :

(i) Drainage removes the excess of zcater from the surface and from
the pores in the soil thereby rendering it more firm. The presence of the
excess of water renders the soil unable to support any considerable weight,
because the moisture acts as a lubricant between the soil particles per-
mitting them to move freely upon each other. Therefore, such soil is soft
and boggy.

Fig. 194. — All inter-hill area of innch soil in IVaync county greatly in need of
better drainage. The flooded condition is the result of a poorly constructed
outlet ditch.

This same free movement of the particles is exceedingly injurious on
all except sand or gravel soil because of the undersirable physical condi-
tion brought about. The small particles are moved into the spaces between
the larger ones, thereby forming a more dense mass of soil. This is
known as the puddled condition and when such soil is permitted to dry
naturally it becomes exceedingly hard and refractory. Such a condition
is generally recognized as undesirable. It is directly opposed to the granu-
lar condition of the soil where the particles are grouped in small aggre-
gates and which favors the production of good " tilth." Poorly drained
soil, therefore, has the two-fold disadvantage of lack of stability or firm-
ness and great susceptibility to physical modifications injurious to most
farm crops. Such injury may be caused by any tillage operations, by
tramping and by the natural drying of the soil.

252 Bulletin 254.

(2) Drainage is directly operative to change an unfavorable physical
condition into a desirable one, as well as to reduce the tendency to a bad
physical condition of the soil. It may bring about the change from a
puddled to a granular soil. Such physical changes are most pronounced in
fine textured soil. The change is produced primarily by the alternate wet-
ting and drying to which well drained soil is subject. Poorly drained soil
is usually in a bad physical condition. It is compact and impervious. This
shows that a permanent or long continued wetness prevents the formation
of the loose granular condition which is desired. On the other hand, con-
tinued dryness produces no important change in tlie physical condition
of the soil. It is the alternation from the wet to the dry condition which
produces the readjustment of the soil particles. In nature such an alter-
nation of wetness and dryness is produced on soil where adequate pro-
vision is made for drainage. The rain comes periodically producing the
wetness which is followed by drying days during which the soil loses more
or less of its moisture. In a saturated soil, the particles are partially
floated. As the water is removed the film first breaks across the large
spaces. It breaks along any natural line of weakness resulting from a
different texture or structure, or a root cavity or animal burrow. A film
of moisture then surrounds a large number of particles. It may be a
mass a foot in diameter or it may be one so small as to be almost invisible
and including only a few hundred particles. As the moisture continues
to be removed by evaporation or other means, the film is continually drawn
tighter around the group of particles and tends with considerable force to
move them nearer together in the same way that — to use a common ex-
ample — the hairs of a brush are held together when it is dipped in water
and then removed. The inequalities in the mass of soil permit breakage of
the film into smaller and smaller areas with the result that new centers
of contraction are produced. This contraction is clearly shown by the
checking of a clay soil upon drying. The difiference between a cloddy
soil and a soil in good tilth is in the size of the granules. In the puddled
soil the lines of great weakness are few in number with the result that a
few centers of contraction produce a few large clods instead of a very
great number of fine granules. The numerous lines of great weakness
are gradually produced by this process of alternate wetting and drying
and their production is facilitated by the presence of plant roots, by frost,
by tillage and by organic matter. It is well known that the tilth of a soil
rapidly improves as a result of drainage and it is the result of the opera-
tion of all these forces and conditions at the foundation of which is
drainage.

(3) Contrary to a frequent belief, drainage increases the amount of
moisture available to crops. This is the result of two factors. First, it
has been shown under two, above, that the granular condition is increased
and therefore the total amount of pore space in the soil is increased. When
the soil is granulated to the condition of good tilth, the total capillary

Drainage in New York. 253

capacity is increased. The soil is then able to both readily absorb the rain-
fall and to retain a larger proportion of it than would otherwise be pos-
sible, against the time of dry weather. Second, the wider and deeper dis-
tribution of the plant roots in drained than in wet soil puts them in reach
of a much larger reservoir of moisture. This effect is well known to those
who have had experience in tile drainage. Mr. Johnston was aware of the
effect since it is reported that his Dutch neighbors laughed at him for
"burying crockery," saying his crop would be "all dried up before it was
half grown," but they remained to be amazed at the great superiority of
Mr. Johnston's crops over their own at harvest time. Drainage is a de-
sirable practice for dry weather as well as for wet weather.

(4) Drainage promotes the aeration of the soil, that is, the exchange
between the soil air and the external air. A supply of oxygen is necessary
to the proper growth of the living organisms in the soil. Such a supply
is largely, if not entirely, excluded from a saturated soil. The removal
of the water makes a place for air and the granulation or loosening-up
process which occurs facilitates the movement of the air into and out
of the soil. The supply of air increases the food available by its direct
action on the minerals in the soil and by promoting the growth of desirable
bacteria. It also hinders or prevents the growth of many undesirable
bacteria.

(5) Drainage permits the soil to maintain a higher average temperature
than is possible on wet soil. This effect is well known and is generally
recognized. Not only has the increased temperature been observed in
practice, but it has been demonstrated experimentally to be a very con-
siderable amount. A clay soil holds more moisture than sandy soil and
from this fact has arisen the descriptive term " cold soil " applied to clay
and " warm soil " applied to sand. The dry soil in each case requires
nearly the same amount of heat to warm equal masses, the difference in
temperature resulting from the difference in amount of moisture retained
under field conditions. How great is this difference in temperature which
may result from poor drainage is shown by the following calculation based
upon well known facts.

The evaporation of one pound of water from a cubic foot of compact
clay, which is saturated with water, absorbs enough heat to lower the tem-
perature of the cubic foot of wet soil 21° F. The evaporation of the same
amount of water from a cubic foot of saturated sand soil would be suffi-
cient to lower its temperature 25° F. If, on the other hand, the heat
necessary to evaporate one pound of water is used to raise the temperature
of the soil containing only the optimum amount of capillary moisture the
temperature of the cubic foot of clay would be raised 29° F. and that of
the sand 32° F. And if all of the excess of water in a cubic foot of
either material were removed by evaporation, enough heat would l^e used
to raise the well moist clay through 380° F. and the sand through 300° F.

254

Bulletin 254.

Such marked effects are supported by the observations of King, Parkes
and others. Parkes found in the peat bogs in Lancashire, England, that
at a depth of 7 inches the drained soil was 15° warmer than the undrained
soil and at a depth of 31 inches the drained soil was still 1.7° warmer.
John Johnston wrote in 1853: "Such fields (undrained) must generally
be left late in the spring — perhaps too late to work favorable — and in
the autumn the frost will inflict an injury." On the Yoemans farm it has
been observed many times that the oat crop may be planted in well
drained land before adjoining land of the same kind is in condition to
plow and in the spring it is commonly observed by farmers how the seed
in the wet spots is delayed in appearance above the surface.

These latter observations emphasize one other very important effect
of drainage in this connection. It lengthens the growing season by per-
mitting the land to be cultivated and seeded earlier in the spring and by
keeping up the temperature in the fall sufficiently late to ward off early
frost. In the southern part of the State on the high hills where it is diffi-
cult to mature corn even in the favorable seasons it may be readily seen
.. -J^g^' how important to the farmer is this extension of the
growmg season. In many cases the difference is that
between a successful crop and a failure.

(6) Drav'.agc increases the m'aiJahJe food supply in
the soil. This results from the effect of drainage on
the moisture retaining capacity, the temperature, the

aeration and the growth
of soil bacteria. The ad-
mission of air acts directly
on the minerals as an oxi-
dizing agent, thereby ren-
dering some of them more
-'.^ soluble. The increased
/' temperature increases the
solution processes and both
the aeration and higher
temperature promote the
larger growth of soil bac-
teria, which are vitally re-
lated to the plant food
supply. It is through their
\0 action that the organic

Fig. 195.— Drainage system adapted to small wet matter in the soil is decom-
areas of tine sandy loam soil. Wetness is in pro- nosed The arrnmnlatinn
portion to shading. Distances: o-c, 675 feet; o-f,>^^^^^^- ^"^ accumulation
558 feet. Sices of tile, to a and b, 4 inches, of peat and muck in boggy
Remainder of system, 3 mch. pl^^^g ^3 ^he result of the

m

\W

s •>■■■.

'%=

W

jl

, A'J-

1>.-- ■ V

:

Drainage in New York. 255

killing of most of these minute organisms by the soil conditions. One
of the first principles in improving such humus soils is to bring about
such conditions as will insure their presence and promote their growth.

The first and most common action of organisms is the decomposition of
organic matter by which carbon dioxide is produced. This carbon dioxide
in turn greatly assists in the solution of the mineral. They also promote
the same process in other ways. Further and even more important, if pos-
sible, is their relation to the supply of available nitrogen, that is, nitrates.
This compound, which is recjuirecl by all ordinary farm crops, is formed
through the action of several forms of bacteria all of which require air and
considerable heat. Some of them live on plant roots such as the nodule
bacteria of clovers. Others live independently in the soil. The exclusion
of air by excess of water not only kills most of these desirable forms, but
it promotes the growth of certain other undesirable organisms which
destroy available nitrogen and organic matter, often with the production
of acid products directly deleterious to higher plants. So that there is a
double reason why drainage should, at all times, be as thorough as pos-
sible — namely the food supply and such a condition of the organic matter
as promotes the best physical condition of the soil.

(y) Drainage enables the plant to make a better use of the food and
moisture supply in the soil. The roots of most farm crops will not de-
velop into a saturated soil. If the water table is at or near the surface,
the roots spread out laterally instead of penetrating deeply. The direct
result is that when the water table is materially lowered later in the season,
the roots are left high and dry and quickly reflect drouthy periods of
weather. On the other hand, if the soil is well drained, they develop
much more deeply and thereby are connected with a larger moisture
reservoir and can withstand without injury a much longer period without
rain or irrigation. Their flevelopment assists in the improvement of the
physical condition of the soil. Equally great is the advantage to the plant
with a deep root system of the larger feeding ground. While there is
some movement of the food in the soil moisture to the roots, it is equally
important that the roots extend themselves into fresh areas of soil. Indeed
it has sometimes been suggested that this extension of the roots is more
important than the movement of the food to the plant with the moisture.
Both the food and moisture considerations are certainly important in the
production of maximum crops.

(8) Drainage greatly rcdtices the injury to winter crops resulting from
"heaving" or the freezing of large amounts of water in the soil. This
process raises the upper layers of soil, carrying all shallow rooted plants
with it, and if some of their roots happen to be fastened in the subsoil,

256 Bulletin 254.

these may be broken off. Such effects are most noticeable on tap-rooted
plants, such as the clovers, but it is almost as injurious to the grass and
grain crops. Nor is the injury of heaving confined to small plants. It
extends to trees and even to fence posts, the latter being lifted out of the
soil by successive freezes. This effect of drainage in reducing or prevent- ,
ing " heaving '' is very generally known by men of experience in the prac-
tice. Speaking of the effect in 1851, Mr. Johnston said, "Heretofore
many acres of wheat were lost on the upland by freezing out, and none
could grow on the low lands. Now there is no loss from that cause."
Mr. Sanford Howard of the Boston Cultivator, in writing in 1852 of the
effects of drainage on Mr. Johnston's farm, says. " This year when much
complaint is made of wheat 'freezing out' and of the weevil or white
midge having greatly injured it his crop will, according to the best judges,
average over thirty bushels per acre. There was no freezing out here;
every grain vegetated and every plant bore its proper quota. The fields
were so even in yield (growth) that little or no difference could be seen
in the different parts."

As to the effect on trees, Mr. Yoemans says in his prize report in 1852,
" Some of the land I first drained had been planted with young orchard
trees and in the wettest places some trees died the first winter, and a greater
number the second winter ; and some young nursery trees on the same
ground were nearly thrown out of the ground by the frost. After drain-
ing it, I replaced the orchard trees and all have grown well and the first
crop of nursery trees, which I Avas compelled to remove to save them
before draining, have been replaced by others since draining and they have
succeeded perfectly so that I may now well say that if we desire to deprive
Jack Frost of his power to do harm, we should keep everything within
his reach as dry as possible." These statements are made wdth reference
to the hills of Miami stony loam soil in Wayne county.

(9) Drainage reduces or presents erosion. Erosion is the washing of
the soil as the drainage water flows down the slope. A saturated soil is
in the right condition for erosion to be most serious. On the other hand,
thorough drainage permits part of this excess to be drawn off beneath the
surface in channels provided for it and which are not subject to such
injury. Further, on clay soil where the injury is liable to be the result of
the water flowing away because it cannot readily penetrate the surface
soil, this effect is reduced by the changes in the physical condition of the
soil resulting from drainage — as mentioned above — so that much more
of the rainfall is absorbed and thereby retained for the use of plants.

(10) Drainage increases the yield of crops. This is, of course, the
obvious purpose of drainage as applied to agriculture. It is one of the
two fundamental purposes of drainage, the other being increased health-

Dr.\inage Ix\ New York. • 257

fulness. The increase varies with the original condition of the land. On
acknowledged swamp land, such as is included in the first group of drain-
age conditions, the difference is that between no crop at all and a large
crop. For it must be kept in mind in connection with wet land that its
productiveness after drainage is, as a rule, directly proportional to its wet-
ness before drainage. So that the drained swamps are usually the most
productive soils for many kinds of crops. And very often these are special
crops of large market value, such as celery, onions, cabbage, and some
other truck crops not to mention many general farm crops.

Of such lands, which have been drained and which have yielded largely,
the Miami black clay loam of the north central states — one of the best
corn soils found anywhere — ^ is a notable example. And all of the mem-
bers of the Clyde series of soils found around the Great Lakes, which are
characterized first by their naturally poor drainage and which under cultiva-
tion are highly productive, are another pertinent example. But important
as are the increased crops from these purely swamp lands, the increased
crops under the second and third groups of drainage conditions — the land
already included in cultivated fields — are of greater importance to the
average farmer. When it is known that the crop returns from such land
can be increased from 10 per cent to 100, or even 200 per cent in excep-
tional cases, without any corresponding increase in other expenses, the
matter assumes a practical form. On clay and black loam soil, a man in
southern Oswego county writes of the effect of tile drainage that instead of
the poorest crops they were the best on the drained part of the field. From
southern Monroe county on clay soil it is reported that, " Except in an
extremely wet season it is possible to secure a crop of anything planted."

On the rolling upland soils the reports of greatly increased yields are
equally as abundant and striking as on the clay soil. Mr. Johnston re-
ports that his yields of wheat increased from the indifferent amount of 15
or 20 bushels per acre to an average of from 30 or 35 bushels with an
occasional yield between 40 and 50 bushels. Nor have these yields been
temporary for on the same farm now after a lapse of 50 years, similarly
large yields are reported. Figure 191 shows a wheat stubble — part of a
field of several acres — which is reported to have yielded 44 bushels of
wheat in 1907. The stubble is uniformly heavy over this field. On the
Miami stony loam in northern Tompkins county a man who has been
practicing tile drainage for ten years reports the increased yield to be
always 50 per cent and in many cases 100 per cent. On a similar stony
loam soil in Niagara county the effects are termed " good." On rolling
slatey loam soil in Herkimer county the effects of tile drainage are " very
good " crops. On rolling land of a heavy loam character in Monroe

9

258 Bulletin 254.

county, the increased yield of the first crop is said to have paid the expense
of the improvement, and from the more hilly sections in the southern part
of the State the yields of all crops are reported to be greatly increased in
every case. This unanimity of the statements of the effect of drainage on
the crop yields bears in upon one's mind the conviction of its desirability
and profitableness. Drainage, wisely applied and well executed, accom-
plishes its purpose which is to permit the production of much larger crops,

IV. The Practice of Under-Draining.

No exact directions of general application can be given for the prac-
tice of drainage. There are so many variable factors that each proposi-
tion must be managed individually with reference to these variable
conditions. Soils differ in their texture which, in turn, affects the
percolation of water; soils of the same texture differ materially in structure
or compactness ; they also differ in these points not only from place to
place on the same farm or in the same county, but also from surface to
subsoil. In some cases the soil is a uniform clay to a depth of many feet,
in other places it is a uniform sand or sandy loam of similar depth. In
still other places the soil may be made up of alternate layers of these
two materials, — ^sand and clay. The layers may be thick or thin, they
may be arranged with either the sand or the clay at the surface ; the layers
may be continuous or discontinuous. The variation of any of these
conditions will modify the character of the drainage system which will give
the most eft'ective results.

In addition to the variations just mentioned, and which refer to
the character of the soil, are the variations in slope or fall, in area of
land to be drained, in the rainfall, — its amount and distribution —
in the accumulation of surface drainage water, in subsurface drainage
or seepage, commonly called springs, in the prevalence of flooding or
overflow of adjacent streams and in the severity of the winter tempera-
tures which will determine the depth to which the 'soil freezes. All
these factors must be taken into consideration in planning and executing
the drainage system. It is because of these variables that no single rule
can be uniformly applied to such details as depth, size of tile and frequency
or arrangement of the drains.

General principles only may be laid down and attention may be called
to some of the difficulties likely to arise in order that their occurrence
may be avoided. The first broad principle to be kept in mind is that
the excess or gravitational moisture in the soil is to be removed to a
sufficient depth and with sufficient rapidity to give the plant reason-
able root area and freedom from stagnant water for more than a day
or two at a time. Second, that water moves with much greater facility

Drainage ix New York. 259

through coarse textured soil than through fine textured ones. Third,
that natural surface or underground drainage water should be intercepted
at the point where it arises. Fourth, that on flat clay soil the trouble
is more likel}- to be in the surface accumulation of water and there-
fore a matter of removing surface water, while on sandy soil, if it is
wet, the subsoil must be drained as well as provision made for surface
water, which will be less in amount and more closely related to the
subsoil water than on clay soil. Fifth, the tile should be arranged at
the depth where the water flows most readily and most largely. Sixth,
on heavy clay soil note carefully the presence or absence of an extensive
stratum of well drained gravel or sand at a reasonable depth beneath the
clay. It is sometimes possible to drain such soil by means of wells or
permeable media by ' which the surface water can reach the porous
stratum. Seventh, the size of the tile must be adapted to the area of
land drained by the system and the volume of water to be handled, also
to the fall of. the drains. Eighth, in very fine sands and muck soils, the
land should first be permitted to settle somewhat after the removal
of the water by open ditches before the tile are laid. In the case of
the sand, precautions against its running into the tile must be taken. In
muck soil, precautions must be taken against the shrinkage of the muck
after drainage, which may throw the tile out of line and destroy the
grade.

a. Kinds of systems.

There are two general types of drainage systems. These are :
1st. The natural or irregular system which follows the natural de-
pressions in the surface and seeks only to remove the water from the
low places. Probably the greater part of the land needing drainage in
this State requires only this type of drainage system. The system shown
in Fig. 195 is an example of this type.

2d. The gridiron or regular system by which lines of tile are arranged
at uniform distances apart throughout the extent of the land drained.
This is necessary only in very uniform soil of uniform physiographic
features where the excess of water is widely and somewhat uniformly
distributed. The Yoemans system shown in Fig. 193 is an example of this
type.

b. Laying out tile drain systems.

On very level land where the fall is small and the outlet question-
able, it is always advisable to employ careful leveling instruments and
in such cases it is often necessary to employ an experienced engineer
to plan the system, to locate the drains, to determine the fall in differ-
ent parts of the system and to indicate the cuts necessary. Where

26o

Bulletin 254.

there is a large body of land in the
same neighborhood to be drained, it
is advisable that a drainage level
similar to the one shown in Fig. 196
be employed on all doubtful proposi-
tions. This level costs about $30,00
and the leveling rod shown
in Fig. 197 costs $10.00 and
these may be purchased by
one man or by several men
acting in co-operation. A
drainage system is such a
permanent investment and
involves so large an amount
of money that no reason-
able precautions should
be neglected to insure
its perfect working. Full
directions for the use of
such an instrument may be
found in books on civil
engineering and particularly
on land drainage and direc-

Fia 196.— .4 tyi^e of level that tions for the manipulating of
may be used in laying out farm ., . ^ ^ ,. .

drainage systems. the mstruments are supplied

by the manufacturers.
But in a large number of propositions the fall is so
apparent and the outlet so clearly defined and adequate
that no leveling instruments of any sort are necessary.
In all such cases the general course of the mains and
laterals should be staked out in advance of any excavation,
beginning at the oudet. If the ditch is to be in a natural target ~od
depression in which water is likely to flow over tlie -^'"^"^'/t' for
surface even after the installation of the tile, the tile level shown
should be placed a little to one side of the bottom of the ^"" ft git re
depression to prevent any possibility of its being washed
out. Wherever a lateral joins a main drain or for that matter
wherever two drains unite, they should come together at an acute
angle instead of at a right angle, with the flow of the water di-
rected with the fall. This arrangement reduces the tendency to
check the flow of water in the tile, thereby causing the deposition
of material in suspension which might clog the tile. This arrange-

Drainage in New York. 261

ment is shown in Fig. 198 and in Fig. 199 is shown the use of a rope

or cord to secure a good curve for the union of a
right angle lateral with the main in making the
first cut in the ditch.
Fig. ig8.— C r r e ct The grade stakes should be set from 12 to 18 inches
twTlUics of tile. to one side of the center of the ditch so that they will
not be disturbed during the excavation,
(i) Fall. — All lines of tile should run with the greatest slope. Even
on very rough land the drains should be run directly instead of diagonally
down the slope. The fall should be as great as the condition will permit.
The greater the fall, the greater will be the carrying capacity of the
ditch. It is a rough general rule that doubling the fall increases by
one third the carrying capacity of a given size of tile. It is very desir-
able to have a fall of at least four inches per 100 feet, but drains have
operated well with a much less fall — even as small as one inch in 100
feet and under special conditions, where the
water flows under a head developed at some
other place, tile have been laid on a dead
level. Where the fall is less than ten inches
per 100 feet, it is desirable to use an in-
strument in laying out the ditch and if it "*(:TWiVy-'Cr';&*''v-;

:•.>'■•=

is less than three inches, the greatest care of *IV^I/f^/¥'S>c'i:^f^4r^

an experienced engineer should be employed. ^^|^:.;^My\<';|;.;-;/>^'.^''^

Fortunately there are few situations where the \^]^wM '^''"''"
available fall is so small as to make such

refinement necessary although it is frequently

.1 ,, 1 r ii i-i. 1 Fig. 199. — Shozcs use of

necessary to have the upper end of the ditch ^^rrf to form a smooth

much more shallow than the lower end to de- cMrt'<? in joining lateral

, ,1 r 11 zvith mam ditch.

velop the fall.

In the distribution of the fall where it is necessarily different in
different parts of the system, it should be the aim to have the
greatest fall nearest the mouth. A lateral drain should never empty
into a main drain having a less fall. The most rapid flow will corres-
pond to the greatest fall and particles of soil which would be carried
in the lateral would be deposited in the slower flow of the main,
permitting it to clog. However, this rule does not oppose the use of
a large fall of the last rod or two of the lateral to bring it into the
main at the same level. Several types of union between laterals and
the main are shown in Figs. 200, 201 and 202. The latter illustrates the
best and probably the most used type. A few stones may be placed
around the joint to check any tendency to the entrance of soil, which

262

Bulletin 254.

may result from loose fitting. It is to be noted in this last named
union that the lateral joins the main at the horizontal center of the tile
and not in a way to have the bottoms of the tiles on the same level.

(2) Depth. — The depth of the tile will vary with the character of the
soil and the nature of the slope. In very sandy or other porous soil, they
may very wisely be placed at a depth of 3)^{> to 4^ feet. In heavy clay
soil they should generally be placed much more shallow and where they
are to supplant the surface drains and have to deal primarily with surface
water, they may be even less than two feet in depth. The most common
depth is 2y2 feet.

!5?5^

y

Fig. 201. — A 11 a t h c r
Fig. 200.— a method of method of connecting

joUiing lateral to the a lateral zcith the

main line of tile. main line of tile.

Fig. 202. — The most com-
mon method of joining
a lateral to a main line
of tile.

Three limiting factors of shallow drains may be mentioned. These
are first, the effect of frost. The action of frost to throw tile out of
line is much less than is generally supposed and if the drainage of the
soil is thorough, very little or no injury to the system may be expected
even if the tile are placed as shallow as 15 or 18 inches. It should be
clearly understood that the placing of drains so shallow as this is
not advocated on any but level heavy clay soil. The eft'ect of the
drainage is to greatly reduce not only the extent of absolute heaving,
but also the tendency to freeze. If the tile are within the range of
much frost action, only hard burned tile should be used. Second, the
interference of tillage implements, such as the plow and subsoil plow.
Third, plant roots may sometimes enter and fill up tile drains. This
is true not alone of shallow drains ; deep drains are also clogged by tree
roots and the roots of some crops. This difficulty is due less to the
depth of the tile than to the character of the flow of the water in the
tile. Roots seek an adecfuate supply of moisture. If the tile carries
only the excess of water during wet priods there will be very little

DicviNAGE IX New York.

263

tendency for tlie roots to enter the tile. But if the tile carries water
from a spring which flows in dry weather, this flow of moisture will
keep the adjacent soil in a moist condition which will attract the roots

and may lead to their developing into the tiles.
In such cases, it may be desirable to cement the
joints of the tile in the neighborhood of trees.

(3) Outlets. — The outlet of a tile drain should
be clear and unobstructed. Figs. 203 and 204 show
examples of bad outlets. In the first case the
caving of the bank and perhaps the tramping of
stock displaces the tile and they become filled
Fig. 203.— a neglected ^^[i\-^ soil thereby becoming ineffective. In the
Hon as a result of second case the outlet is drowned, that is, the

cazing of the bank, mouth of the tile is below the level of the water
Probably accelerated ^ . . , , „, . •. i.i

bv tramping of stock surface in the open channel, this permits the

accumulation of sediment in the last few lengths
of tile. It also renders the last few rods ineffective as drainage because
the water backs up in the tile until the tile is above the level
of the water surface. If the fall is only a few inches per hundred feet,
this may render useless as many hundred feet of the drain. The
water should have a free flow from the mouth of the tile. A. well con-
structed mouth of a drainage system is
shown on title page. It is laid up in stone to
prevent the caving of the ditch bank and the
end of the tile is screened by means of three
or four heavy wires or rods set in a wooden
frame which fits over the end of the tile.

Its purpose is to prevent the entrance of Fig. 204.— A "drowned" outlet

,,.,,., , 1,111 due to level of zvater being

small animals which may enter and get lodged /,/^/;^,- than mouth of_ the

in the tile, obstructing the flow of water. i'^lc drain. An undesirable
Under all conditions the last rod or two of the

drain should be composed of hard conduit. Sewer pipe is sometimes used.
A plank box or an iron pipe is also used at the outlet, but the place of
both of these may be taken by hard burned or vitrified tile of the ordinary
type. However, one advantage of a long plank box or the iron pipe, where
the outlet is in a soft bank unsupported by stone work, is that it will be
less affected than the tile by the caving of the bank of the open
ditch.

If the water has any fall from the mouth of the tile it should strike
a stone or cement bottom which is united to the tile.- Erosion is likely
to occur which may undermine the tile and destroy an otherwise good
outlet.

264

BULLKTIX 254.

Since special precautions are necessai\- at every outlet to a tile drain.

as few of ilieni shouM be made as possible. l"or example, il the i;eueral

outlet to a series of drains is an
open ditch, it is belter to have one
outlet than se\eral. Instead of
leading each line separately to the
open (.litch. they ma\- be joined to
a main tile drain which, in (urn.
empties into the open ditch at the
lowest point. If the main drain
is parallel to the open diich and at
a tlistanee ivom it equal 10 the dis-
tance apart o\ ihe laterals, there will
be no increase in amomit oi exeava-

FiG. 205.-Hamt iwt>[^-m-nls used in ■ j^,, .^|^ ^^^ ^i,^, raiuired. The

constniiiiiii: t'lc drains. ^ '

only difference will be the larger
size of tile required by the main.
This is set against the advantage
of one outlet as compared with
several outlets.

c. Diggiiuj the ditch.
( i) Hand tools. — The tools and
equipment needed for digging a
ditch by hand are shown in I'ig. 205.
Some men open the ditch with a
plow, but this is usually considered
bad practice because it leaves tlu^
top ragged and interferes with
subsequent excavations. The use
of the ditching plow is reported
by several men to l)e satisfactory.
It is very convenient for loosening
the soil in the bottom of ihe ilileh
and hastens the ]M-ocess of removing
the earth with a shovel. The narrow
spade — Xo. 5^is the tix^l most used
in making the main cxcavatiiMi.
There is considerable facility and
ease to be learned in this ojieratit^i.

Jici. 20(1. — Digiiiiu/ a main ditcli i>y
hand in stony soil.

Drainage in New Yokk.

2r>:

The \()W% hanrllcrl shovel — Xo. 3 — is user! in throwing out loose earth
and the pick — Xo. 2 — in loosening hard strata and removing Ixjiilders.
Grading scoops are shown at Xos. 4 and 7. Xumber i is the grade line
for which purpose one of the best is the plumb line cord used by carpen-
ters and masons. Xumber 8 shows good types of grarle and level stakes

rFig. 205).

{2) Ditching machine. — On large projects where the soil is not

excessivclv stony the ditching machine, a type of which is shown in Fig.

Yio. 207. — A traction ditching machine in operation on clay loam soil at the New

York State College of Agriculture.

207, may be used to good advantage. There are very few farms which
have enough drainage to warrant the purchase of so expensive a machine,
but if there is a large amount of ditching to be done in the neighborhood,
it may be profitable to purchase such a machine for either co-operative
use or for job contract work. Under fairly favorable conditions the
excavation may be made as cheap, if not more cheaply, by the use of the
machine than by emfjloying hanrl labor and where hand labor is scarce
the former may be the most satisfactory arrangement. The machine
shown in Fig. 207 has been used on the University farm during the fall of

266

Bulletin 254.

1907 and the character of the ditch cut
by it in fairly heavy clay soil containing
occasional boulders as large as one's
head is shown in Fig. 208. This ditch is
four feet deep and was cut at the rate
of about three feet per minute when the
machine was in operation.

A stretch of 171^ rods, three feet deep,
was dug in clay soil in one hour and
forty-five minutes or at the rate of 10
rods per hour. Under favorable con-
ditions this rate can be maintained. The
expense of operating the machine is from
$5.00 to $10.00 per day.

Except where large stones in the
bottom of the ditch may occasionally
mar its uniformity no hand finishing of
grade is necessary where the machine is
used. As a rule a better finish is given
than could be imparted by hand.

(3) Grading. — The finishing of the
ditch is the delicate part of the operation
and is the final test of a piece of work.
The leveling may be ever so carefully
done but may be rendered of no avail
by lack of care in bringing the ditch
bottom to grade. In all hand work, a
reliable man should be employed for this
operation. The superficial excavation should never be made below
the "-rade line and in fact should not come nearer to it than an inch
or two. This permits the use of the grade scoop and the creation of
a clean smooth grade on firm soil which is the ideal foundation for
laving^ tile. The establishment

I

Fig. 208— a four foot ditch
cut ill heavy clay soil on
the University farm by the
steam ditciiing machine
shozi'n ill fiyure 207.

.

a

^

t

of an accurate grade is facili-
tated by a small flow of water --- .| ,-.-v
in the bottom of the ditch W^'MjiM
which will quickly reveal any
inequalities. Where this is not
available a carefully established
grade line accurately followed
is the most feasible method.
A method of correlating the

grade line with the grade of the ditch is shown in b^ig. 209. The grade
cord is drawn at a definite uniform height above the finished bottom

Fig. 209. — Method of correlating grade of
ditch with grade line.

Drainage in New York. 267

of the ditch. Another method much preferred to the previous one by
many practical men involves the use of " batter boards " instead of grade
stakes. These boards are fastened to stakes on either side of the ditch
at a sufficient distance — usually a foot or more from the edge of the
bank — to insure their security until the completion of the work. These
boards are placed across the ditch at intervals of fifty feet or so, near
enough so that a cord can be stretched between without any appreciable
sag at the middle. The upper edg"e constitutes the grade line and the
grade cord connects these points and gives a reference base directly over
the center of the ditch which is an important advantage.
d. Laying and covering the tile.

( 1 ) Laying tile. — There are two methods of placing tile in the ditch.
The first is by hand. When the tile have been distributed along the
bank within easy reach of the man in the ditch, they may be rapidly
placed and any shifts necessary to make a tight fit may be cjuickly made.
The ends of the tile are frecjuently not square and it becomes necessary
to turn the tile about to get a tight fit. This may be quickly secured
and the tile firmly placed and if necessary, it may be wedged with earth
to hold it in place during the filling of the ditch. The second method
is the use of the tile hook shown at No. 6 in Fig. 205. It is most con-
venient in a very deep ditch, but is not so accurate and rapid as the
hand method where the former may be used. The open end of the tile
should always be closed by a stone or board when it is to be left for any
length of time as over night.

(2) Protecting joints. — ■ In the early days of the use of tile, it was
customary to protect the joints by means of collars or stones. This
served two purposes. It aided in keeping the tile in line and also pre-
vented, to some degree, the entrance of soil. But the use of collars has
generally been discarded as expensive and unnecessary. If the tile are
well made and carefully laid the joints will be sufficiently close to ex-
clude all soils except, perhaps, the very fine sand and silt types. And
even these will have but little tendency to enter the tile after the soil
has readjusted itself and become granulated. Clay soils, medium and
coarse sand and gravel soils and muck give very little, if any, trouble
by entering a well laid tile drain. The protection of the tile from the
entrance of silt and very fine sand may be effected bv placing over the
tile a thin layer of three or four inches of coarse sand, fine gravel or
vegetable material, such as straw, chafif, leaves or sawdust. The
soil may be filled in on top of this as shown in Fig. 210. This mate-
rial will act as a strainer to exclude the soil from the tile while facili-
tating the movement of water. The latter material will gradually decay
and the soil will slowly adjust itself as the decay progresses without
harm to the tile drain.

(3) Filling ditch. — As soon as the tile have been placed, they should
be covered lightly with earth to hold them in position during the sub-

268

Bulletin 254.

sequent operation of filling the ditch. After any straw, etc., that may
be used is in place, the soil should be carefully thrown in by hand, avoid-
ing the dropping of stone on the tile with such force as to break them.
After enough soil has been thrown in and tramped to hold the tile in
place, the subsequent filling requires less care and may be performed
in a variety of ways according to circumstances. One method is the
use of the plow to which the horses are attached by means of a double
tree 9 or 10 feet long which permits them to walk in the clear on either
side of the excavation (Fig. 211). Another method is a form of

broad scraper to which one or two
horses are attached. The scraper
is placed behind the excavated
earth and the horse stepped-up
until the earth is dumped into the
ditch when the horse is backed up
to repeat the operation. When
the horse becomes trained to the
operation, the process is a rapid
M one. Another rapid and convenient
method of filling the ditch after the
Fig. 210.— Filling the ditch. Shows fii'st covering of soil is in place is

use of straw chaff or fine gravel used by H. E. Cook of Denmark,
immediately upon the tile to prevent ^ -i . .

entrance of very fine sand and silt. ^ew York. i his is an ordinary

wheel scraper or road machine

similar to that shown in Fig. 216. The scraper is set well to one side

and is a rapid method of filling where the machine and teams are

available.

(4) Sinks and silt basins.

Where it is necessary to
admit a large amount of
water into the tile rapidly,
some more porous medium
than the soil must be used
and it must exclude the
entrance of soil to some
extent at least. That is, it
must have some filtering
capacity. The sink and filter
idea is usually combined.
One of the most common

method used to admit water quickly to the tile is the stone sink.
Stone and boulders of difl'ercnt sizes arc filled in directly over the
tile and up as near to the surface as is necessary to meet the conditions.
In very heavy clay where it is undesirable to interfere with tillage,
the stone may only rise to the plow line. Under other conditions

Fig. 211. — Shows use of the plozu in connec-
tion with a long double-tree to complete
the filling of ditch.

Drainage in New York.

269

they may rise to the surface. If the volume of water to be
handled is very large, the length of the filter may be increased
or what is less desirable, the tile may be separated a small
fraction of an inch to permit the more ready entrance of the
water. Types of stone sinks are shown in Figs. 212 and 213 and in the
latter is shown a modified form in which a wooden box with parts
of the sides closed by wire screen. This screen box is sometimes
combined with the silt basin. The silt basin is a well in which the

coarse soil particles may settle
while the water is drawn ofif at
a higher level where it holds
only the material which may
be carried. In this case the
silt well is constructed in the
course of the ditch and one
or more lengths of tile are

removed.

This

Fig. 212.— BiiHcd stone filter and sink fo'^^^^^'^^^- -i ^is same con-

facilitate entrance of surface water into tile, struction of the silt well is

used where it is necessary to
join several laterals at one point with a main ditch which has a dif-
ferent grade. The bottom of the well may extend several feet below
the level of the tiles and any heavy material will fall to the bottom
where it may be easily removed instead of being collected in the tile
where it may cause damage.

The clogging of tile by sediment is
serious only in drains having a
relatively small fall — say less than six
inches per 100 feet. Where the fall is
greater than this amount, there is a
very decided scouring action of the
water which will handle any material

which may enter a fairly well-made Fig. 215. — Stone sink and Alter with
• • ^ screened box intake.

(e) Size of tile-

The proper size of the tile is one of those details for which no explicit
directions can be given. Since the cost of tile increases very rapidly
with increased size, as small tile as will meet the conditions should be
used. But no risk should be taken of using too small tile. The increased
cost of the larger sized tile is small compared with the total cost of
constructing tile drains and too small tiles at the outlet may render a
whole system relatively ineffective.

On the other hand, it is undesirable to use too small tile. Where
the fall is less than one-half foot per 100 feet, no tiles smaller than 3 inch
should be used. With small tile a relatively small discrepancy in grade
may throw the whole line of tile out of commission while with a larger

270 Bulletin 254.

tile the same error in grade will cause very little harm. The size of the
tile to be used depends upon the length of the line. As a general rule,
there is a limit to the length of tile of any common size, which should
not be exceeded. These limits are also determined by the grade. The
relation of these factors is shown by the following table given by Elliott
in "Engineering for Land Drainage" (p. 142).

Limit of si::c of tile to grade and leiiytli.

Size of Minimum grade Limit of

tile per 100 ft. length

in inches in feet in feet

2 10 600

3 09 800

4 05 1600

5 05 2000

6 05 2500

7 05 2800

8 05 3000

9 05 3500

10 04 4000

II 04 4500

12 04 5300

These limits are based upon perfectly laid tile which is seldom
achieved.

Elliott in Farmers' Bulletin 187 on the Drainage of Farm Lands,
gives the following summary of the conditions which determine the size
of the drains, particularly the mains.

(0 The depth of water to be removed in twenty-four hours over the
area of the drainage system.

(2) Rapidity with which the water is brought to the main, that is,
the number, size and fall of the laterals.

(3) The- existence of emergency surface drainage.

(4) The texture and physical condition of the soil, that is, whether
it is open and porous or dense and retentive.

(5) The grade of the ditch.

Ordinarily it is not possible to calculate the size of tile necessary
to be used with the same accuracy that a water conduit in a supply
system may be calculated. The character of the soil is the first factor
which renders such accuracy impossible. It has a great capacity to
retain moisture and in a clay loam soil the surface foot may retain,
two inches or more of water without becoming too wet. So that the
thoroughness of drainage is not determined directly by the rainfall. How-
ever, since the farmer must in some way gauge the size of tile used
to the area of land drained and the amount of water handled, the follow-
ing abridged table from Elliott, as quoted above, may be of use.

Drainage in New York.

271

Kimihcr of acres from ^cliicli '4 incii of zcatcr icill be removed in
24 hours bv outlet tile drains of different diameters and different lengths
zeith different grades.

Diameter of Tile in
Inches

Grade in Inches Per ioo Feet

Length of Drain in Feet

1000

2000

1000

200.0

1000 2000

1 000

2000

1000

- 2000

Acres of Land Drained bv Different Sizes of Tile

e

19. 1

15-7

22.1

19.4

25.1 22.7

32.0

30-3

37-7

36.3

1

6

29.9

24.8

34

8

30.5

39-6

35-9

30.5

47.8

59-4

S7-3

7

44-1

36.4

31

I

44.8

58.0

52.8

74-0

70. I

87.1

84.1

8

61.4

50-7

71

2

62.6

80.9

73-6

103 -3

98.0

I 21 . 4

117-3

82.2

68. I

95

3

83-8

108 .4

89.6

138-I

131 -3

162.6

IS7-I

106.7

88.5

123

9

108 .9

140 , 6

128. I

179-2

170.5

211 . 1

204 .4

167.7

139-3

194

6

I 7 I . 6

221 . I

201.8

281.8

268.6

331-8

321 .7

245-3

204.3

284

•9

251-7

323 5

296 . I

412.9

393-9

485-8

472.1

16

341.4

284.6

369

• 3

350.4

449-9

412.2

573-7

548.8

675.2

657 .3

18

456.4

381.3

529

. I

47°- I

601 .;

552.5

767-4

733.1

902.3

880. s

20

591 -5

245-9

686

■ 3

610.5

7S0.C

718.2

994 . 5

Q<A .6

1 1 70 .0

1 144 .

Elliott says further that, " No attempt should be made to make the
capacity of the intercepting drains equal the combined capacity of the
laterals where a system of thorough drainage is employed. The size
of laterals where the soil is open and permits the use of drains 100 or
more feet apart should l)e 4 and 5 inch tile, which in some cases may be
diminished to 3 inch at the upper end. For drains at a less distance
apart three inch tile may be used for laterals. They are usually required
to carry only a small part of their full capacity and relieve the soil
of its surplus water. To do this well, however, they should not be
quite full at any time unless it be when there is more than ordinary
rainfall. They do not work under a pressure head, hence their velocity
of. flow is as great when running half full as when running full. Water
in a drain attains its greatest velocity when three-fourths full and its
greatest rate of discharge when nine-tenths full."
/. Distance apart of drains.

Where the conditions are such as to require a regular system of drains
at definite intervals, the interval will still depend on the character of
the soil. They will be near together in heavy clay soil and farther apart
in sandy soil, In general, however, it is not found desirable even on

272 Bulletin 254.

clay soil to place the drains nearer than 40 feet and they may be rela-
tively farther apart as the soil is more coarse in texture so that in very
porous soil they may, in extreme cases, be as much as 300 feet apart.

Every drainage system should begin at the outlet and this should
be constructed with reference to the probable area from which it will
be expected to carry water. Then in developing the system of laterals,
it is wise to select some unit or minimum interval between laterals.
The tile may then be put in at this interval, at twice or four times this
interval and if in the course of time it is found that the larger interval
does not give sufficiently thorough drainage, the interval may be halved
or quartered by the installation of additional drains without in any way
affecting the system.

The following tabic shozvs the number of feet of tile required per acre
when placed the specified distances apart.

20 feet apart 2205 feet

25 " " 1760

30 " " 1470

40 " " 1102

50 " " 880

100 " " 440

150 " " 270

200 " " 220

g. Kinds of tile.

There are two general types of tile as to hardness. These are first,
the soft, red tile, sometimes called brick tile which have not been sub-
jected to great heat in burning. Second, the hard tile designated as
vitrified or glazed tile. Between these two types there is every gradation
of hardness. Next to the vitrified tile which are very expensive the
semi-vitrified tile is most desirable. These have only the first beginning
of vitrification but are far superior to the very soft types.

The hard tile have every advantage over the soft tile for agricultural
purposes. The soft tile absorb large amounts of water and when they
are subjected to even a small amount of freezing they quickly crumble.
On the other hand the hard tile absorbs very little water and are no
more injured by freezing when wet than any ordinary resistant stone.
In fact hard burned tile are equally as durable as good stone. If there
is the least danger of the tile freezing, the hard tile should be used and
since they can be purchased almost as cheaply as the soft tile, there is
every reason for their use. The water does not enter even soft tile
through the walls but through the joints so the impervious character of
the hard tile is no objection to their use.

Another classification may be made as to their shapes (Fig. 214).
The m.ost practicable forms are the round or hexagonal tile because of
the ease with which they may be firmly placed on the bottom of the

Drainage in New York.

^77^

ditch in laying and the facility with which close joints may be made by
revolving the tile. In addition to the round and hexagonal tile there are
the single and double sole tile with round opening. The hexagonal tile
are to be preferred to the sole tile as to ease in laying. It is generally
unwise to use horse-shoe tile. They are easily broken and may be mis-
placed by the erosion of the water in the bottom of the ditch. Junction
tile of different sizes are made by many manufacturers and it is gener-
ally wise for persons inexperienced in making good unions with ordi-
nary tile to use these junction pieces.

The farmers of the state should give especial attention to this point
of hardness and should use only hard tile, which they are sure will with-
stand the destructive agencies. They should hold the tile dealers to
the standard and insist on the desired stock, and the manufacturers and

Fig. 214. — Some types of drain tile.

dealers on the other hand should take cognizance of this demand and
supply the hard burned tile. It is regrettable that so little hard burned
drain tile is available from New York dealers and if it is not to be had
within the state there should be no hesitancy in going outside of the
state where first class tile can be secured. In case of doubt, the farmer
should require that a piece of the tile be submitted for inspection before
the order is placed and the shipment should be equal to the sample.

(5) Cost of drainage.

The cost of draining may be classed under three heads. First, the
initial cost of the tile. Second, the cost of transportation from the
factory to the farm, including the haul from the railway station and the
distribution in the field and, third, the laying out of the system, excava-
tion of the ditch, laying the tile and filling the ditch.

274

Bulletin 254.

The average list price per one thousand (looo) feet of the different
si::es, quoted by dealers in the state, is shozvn in the follozving table.

Diameter of Tile

Price per
1000 feet

Diameter of Tile.

Price per
1000 feet

2 inches

S13 so

6 inches

$62 00

2h inches

16 so

95 00

^ inches

21 00

10 inches

165 00

4 inches

3 4 00

230 00

S inches

44 00

There is a wide variation in the prices quoted by different concerns
for the same size of tile. It is customary to give a discount from these
prices ranging from twenty to forty per cent. In the appendix, page
428, is given a list of some of the tile dealers in New York State from
whom these prices w^ere obtained.

The cost of transportation depends entirely upon the location of the
land to be drained.

The cost of digging the ditch depends on several factors. The first
of these is the character of the soil and its topography. Very stony
soil is more expensive to ditch than soil free from stone. Second, the
cost depends on the condition of the soil particularly with reference to
moisture. A moist soil is easier to dig than a dry hard one. Third,
the cost of labor is an important element in the final cost. Many men
have put in their ditches with labor which could not be effectively used
in other directions, but for which they were at expense. More frequently,
however, it must be a direct and specific expenditure either for day or
month labor or by contract. Figures on cost at one time or place are
not necessarily applicable to another place or time, hence any figures
given must be taken only as a general guide. For one hundred rods in
Seneca county the digging, laying and filling cost thirty-five cents per
rod. In Oswego county one hundred and thirty rods cost forty cents
— tile buried three feet. In Onondaga county on light clay loam, a two
and one-half foot ditch cost thirty-five cents per rod.

The average price reported by a Herkimer county farmer where
the draining has been done over a period of years is about seventy cents
per rod. From Monroe county on clay soil it is reported to be about
fifty cents per rod, ditch three feet deep and one hundred and fifty rods
k)ng. On stony loam in Tompkins county, the cost of a ditch from
two and one-half to three feet deep is reported as from thirty to thirty-
five cents per rod. In the Genesee Valley on a heavy clay loam one
hundred acres of land was drained during the season of 1907 at an aver-
age contract price for digging the ditch, laying the tile and filling the
ditch of from thirty-five to forty cents per rod, but the man employed

Drainage ix New York. 275

was a rapid and experienced ditcher and was able to complete about ten
rods per day under average conditions and a two and one-half to three
foot ditch. The operator of a steam ditching machine reports that he
contracts to dig a two and one-half foot ditch in average soil for twenty-
five cents per rod and that an additional one cent per rod is charged
for each additional inch of depth. For laying the tile and filling the
ditch five to ten cents per rod may be added, making the cost range
from thirty to thirty-five cents per rod for a two and one-half foot ditch
and from forty-two to forty-eight cents for a three and one-half foot
ditch. At the New Hampshire Experiment Station in 1904 on heavy
clay soil, the average cost per rod on a system of two hundred and sixty-
six rods, for laying out and digging the ditch, laying the tile and filling
the ditch, most of which was done by hand, was thirty-eight cents per
rod. This represents a little less than one-half of the cost per rod of
completing the ditch the remainder being comprised in the cost of tile and
transportation. The cost of digging is considered to be unusually high be-
cause of the very dry and hard condition of the soil and the employment
of unskilled workmen.

Thus far consideration has been given to the cost per rod of installing
tile drains. Another view which may be taken is the average cost per
acre for tile drains. Obviously this depends on the number of rods of
tile put in per acre of land drained. The point has been made that
a large part of the land in the state does not require a regular system of
drains at frequent intervals to give large and profitable returns from the
practice. In fact most of the land to be drained would be greatly bene-
fited by the installation of from six to twenty rods per acre strategically
placed. That is, the use of tile drains in the low places and springy
areas. On this point the investigations of the Wisconsin Experiment
Station as reported in Bulletin No. 146 throw much light. A systematic
survey was made of the drainage conditions in several drainage districts.
It was found that in ]\It. Pleasant Township, just west of Racine, where
the surface is undulating and the soil is mostly Marshall clay loam and
Miami clay loam with small areas of muck and Clyde clay loam, that
out of 23,040 acres 13,284 acres are considered to be decidedly in need
of drainage and of this area 8.362 acres have been drained at any average
cost estimated at seventy-five cents per rod. In this area 60,333 rods
of tile were placed or about eight rods per acre, costing approximately
$6 per acre. The reports of the farmers in the region showed that the
increased value of the land, had averaged $20 per acre.

In the Appleton area in the Fox River valley where red clay soil is
said to predominate 2,140 acres of land had been drained by the natural
system by 19.635, rods of tile or nine and two-tenths rods per acre.

" In order to determine the actual benefits from tiling, a careful esti-
mate was made of the number of acres of corn, barley, oats and hay on

2^6 Bulletin 254.

each section of land. The land in each crop was divided into three
groups ; first, that naturally well drained ; second, that having poor natural
drainage, but no tile, and third, that having poor natural drainage and
tile. A percentage estimate of all crops on each class of land gave as an
average on the naturally well drained land 83.7 per cent, of a full crop;
on the poorly drained land without tile 64; and on the tile drained land
93 per cent. In order to form a more definite estimate of the benefit of
tiling, a comparison was made between the poorly drained and the tile
drained lands for each of the four crops, corn, barley, oats and hay. In
the case of corn there were forty acres of wet land planted, this gave an
estimated yield of twenty baskets per acre. There were seven hundred
and fifty acres of the drained land planted to corn which gave an average
yield of 102 baskets of ears per acre. In the case of barley, there were
330 acres of wet land planted which gave an average yield of 25.7 bushels
and 610 acres of tiled land which gave an average yield of 2)1-7 bushels
per acre. Of oats there were 340 acres on wet land which gave an aver-
age yield of 27.6 bushels and 500 acres on tile drained land
which gave an average yield of 43.8 bushels per acre. Of hay
1,050 acres of wet land yielded an average of two tons per acre and
280 acres of tile drained land were estimated to give the same average
yield."

There is no question but that the same figures or even more favorable
ones would apply to many New York districts.
(6) P crmancncy of tile drains.

The permanency of a tile drainage system depends

upon the quality of the tile used, the conditions under

which they are placed and the skill with which the tile

are laid. Hard tile well placed form practically a

permanent improvement. Some of the first tile laid

in America are still in operation and are apparently in

good condition. The Johnston, the Rose Hill and the

Yoemens systems have been in operation for fifty

years or more and in the main are in perfect working

order to-day. Certainly this is true on the Johnston

farm and Fig. 215 shows one of the tile which has

been in the system that long. The failure of Mr.

burned U HI'-- Yoemans to leave a plan of his drains together with

/'^'."IV/'f"^,;!^''''''^ some neglect has permitted some of the outlets to be

the outlet of one clogged, but there is abundant evidence that the

/'/(''/ li^^^^^ohn- S^^^^^^ part of the system is still in good working

ston farm near condition. No other improvement made on the farm

Geneva, A. i . \^ more permanent in character when well executed
Still m sound ., , .

condition. than tile dramage.

-Drainage in New York. 277

(7) Stone drains.

Stone drains have been extensively used in this state in the hill sec-
tions. They have been constructed in various ways often with stone
which it was desirable to remove from the land. Such drains are effec-
tive and have done much good, but the opinion of many reports is that
they are unsatisfactory. In the first place they are as expensive if not
much more so than tile drains ; second, they are not as efficient and, third,
they are less permanent. There is a strong probability of various bur-
rowing animals making their home in them and by their operations
closing the drains. Many reports are to this efifect. It is only where
the stone are abundant and at hand and the cost of tile very great that
one should feel justified in using stone.

(8) Open ditches.

Open surface ditches are very largely used in New York State. As
has been said they are used entirely too much and should be largely
replaced by tile. But they have a place in drainage work. Where the
volume of water to be handled is very large or where the land is so low
and flat that it is impossible to construct any other form of drain, they
may be used. As carriers of water they are most efficient when their
form approximates that of a semi-circle. This usually means in practice
that they will have sloping sides, be twice as wide at the top as at the
bottom and one-half as deep as the width of the top. To do good work
they should be properly graded and kept free from weeds.

Where small open ditches are used, as is sometimes necessary to re-
move surface water, perhaps to make way for tile drainage when the
land has become sufficiently dry, one hindrance to their efficiency is the
piling of the excavated earth on the banks of the ditches. This ridge
of earth greatly hinders the entrance of water. Also the tramping of
cattle tends rapidly to fill up the ditch. Both of these difficulties are
obviated by a method of constructing surface ditches used by Samuel
Fraser on the Fall Brook Farms in the Genesee valley. He employs
the ordinary road machine drawn by four or six horses, according to the
character and condition of the soil. The ditches are made very broad
with gently sloping sides and the excavated earth is carried back to the
crest of the divide between the ditches. Ditches three and one-half
feet deep and fifteen feet wide have been made in this way. The width
is always proportional to the depth and varies from practically nothing
at the head to the maximum dimensions at the mouth. The use
of the machine is shown in Fig. 207. Ditches constructed in this way
do not interfere with cultural operations and are entirely utilized by the
crop. Neither does the tramping of animals destroy their efficiency as
readily as the common form of open ditch. At the same time the water
finds ready access to the channel.

2-^^

Bulletin 254.

Summary.

1. A very large amount of drainage is needed in New York State.
The conditions needing drainage may be divided into three groups.
First, the pronounced swamp lands. Second, the comparatively level
land mostly of a heavy clay texture. Third, the rolling upland regions
of stony loam soil.

2. Better drainage is needed in order to obtain the maximum
efficiency from tillage and manures.

3. Open surface ditches are now most largely used to remove water
from wet land. It is believed that a large part of these open ditches

should he replaced b\ tile drains.

4. The first tile
drains constructed in
America were put in
by John Johnston on
his farm near Gen-
eva about 1837. I^^^
farm of three hun-
dred acres contains
between sixty and
seventy miles of tile
drains practically all
of which are still in
good condition.

5. Air. Johnston
greatly increased the
yield of all crops on
his land, which ranges
from a heavy clay to
a heavy gravelly

loam, by the practice of tile drainage. This increased crop return is
maintained to the present date.

6. Ten primary effects of drainage may be enumerated. These are,
first, it removes excess moisture and firms the s^il. Second, it improves
the physical condition of the soil. Third, it increases the amount of
moisture available to crops. Fourth, it improves the aerotion of the soil.
Fifth, drainage raises the average temperature of the soil and keeps it
more uniform. .Sixth, it increases the available food supply. Seventh,
it enables the plant to make better use of the food and moisture in the
soil. Eighth, drainage reduces the extent of heaving and other winter
injury. Ninth, drainage reduces the extent of erosion. Tenth, drainage
increases the yield of crops.

7. On most of the land in the State it is not necessary to install an

l5 '

r-'

YiG. 216. — Use of road iiiacJiinc in the construction
of surface ditch.

Drainage in New York. 279

extensive drainage system with lines of tile at frequent intervals in order
to secure large money returns from the practice. On much of the land
a natural system located in the low places will be very satisfactory.

8. The arrangement of drains, the depth and size of tile will vary
with the local conditions and must be determined by the man doing the
draining, who should keep in mind the essential principles involved.

9. As a general rule on fairly porous soil a depth of from two and
one-half to three feet is considered desirable. But on Hat heavy clay
soil the tile should be placed much more shalloiv, even as shallozv as
fifteen or eighteen incJies. In such cases they are to be considered as
subsurface channels for the rapid removal of surface water. The ad-
mission of water to the tiles may be facilitated by the use of stone on top
of the tile in low places.

10. Wherever there is anv chance of the tile freezing only hard
burned nonabsorbent tile should be used. Much of the tile manufactured
in the state is too soft and porous.

11. The use of instruments in laying out the drainage system is not
considered necessary where the fall is one foot or more per hundred feet.

12. Especial care should be used in constructing outlets and as few
should be made as possible. They should be protected from the entrance
of animal life and from the caving-in and freezing of the bank.

APPENDIX.

I. LAW RELATING TO AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE.

It is g-enerally recognized that there ma_v be two objects in the drainage of wet
land. These are, first, the improvement of healthfulness of the region, and
second, economic benefits.

There are two distinct classes of law relating to the drainage of land. These
are. first, the common law, which consists of those customs, usages and decisions
which have grown up in the country with reference to a particular subject, as
drainage ; second, the statutory law, which consists of the enactments of legisla-
tive bodies with reference to a particular subject and is designed to modify and
make the common law more specific.

The cointuoji lazv principle with reference to land drainage is that no man may
modify the natural drainage water on his own land in any way which materially
affects his neighbor to a disadvantage, unless he can show that it is for the benefit
of the public health or welfare. If it is shown to be a matter of public concern,
there accrues the right to condemn land for a right of way to provide a suitable
drainage outlet. If it is not shown to be a matter of public concern then the
owner of a piece of land cannot increase or decrease the total flow of water in
any natural drain. He may faciliate the natural movement of water by the use
of tile or other artificial means, but Cannot materially increase the drainage area
of the stream discharged upon his neighbor without being liable for any dam-
ages. A drain is recognized to be any course in which the eye of the casual
observer is able to see that water will flow naturally at some season of the year.

28o Bulletin 254.

The statutory law. All of the states have enacted laws regulating the move-
ment and use of natural waters. In 1895, New York passed a general law, which
is Chapter 384 of tb.e Laws of that year, providing for the drainage of agricultural
lands.

This law has been declared unconstitutional by the New York Court of
Appeals, and therefore at the present time agricultural drainage in the state rests
essentially on the common law provisions. But since it is so important that there
be satisfactory statutory provisions governing this matter, and since the gen-
eral provisions of the law of 1895 were so excellent, it is deemed expedient to
give here a summar}^ of the provisions of that law; and since the objectionable
features of the law must be looked for in the decision setting it aside, that
decision will be examined together with the rulings and laws in other states, in
order to point out, if possible, the lines along which a satisfactory law may be
constructed. For the great extent of poorly drained land in New York and the
needs of these lands for agricultural purposes render it imperative that proper
laws be enacted at an early date, and it is hoped so to set the matter before the
people of the state in this publication, as to lead to action in that direction.

It having been found that the State Constitution did not make adequate pro-
vision for this type of drainage, the following amendment was made, in 1894, to
Section 7, of Article i, relating to roads and drainage :

"General laws may be passed permitting the owners or occupants of agri-
cultural lands to construct and maintain for the drainage thereof, necessary
drains, ditches and dykes upon the land of others, under proper restrictions
and with just compensation; but no special laws shall be enacted for such
purposes."

The law of 1895, mentioned above, was based on this amended section, and
provided that a person owning agricultural lands within this state may institute
proceedings for the drainage of sucli lands or the protection thereof from over-
flow, by the construction or maintenance of a drain or dyke, on the land of
another person, or the use of mechanical devices, by presenting a verified petition
to the County Court of the County, in which such land is located, or if in
more than one county, to a special term of the Supreme Court of the district
where the lands or a part thereof are situated, setting forth a general description
of the lands to be drained or protected, the nam.es and places of residence of the
owners of all lands affected by the proceedings, and a prayer for the appointment
of three commissioners who shall be disinterested resident freeholders. Due
notice of the petition shall be given to all land owners affected. If, as a result
of the hearing, the petition appears reasonable and the commissioners are ap-
pointed, they shall examiine the proposition and determine the following matters :

1. Whether such land shall be drained or protected.

2. Whether it is necessary, in order to drain or protect such land, that a
drain be opened through or dykes erected upon lands belonging to another,
and whether mechanical devices should be constructed or used.

3. The amount of damage, if any, sustained by such other landowners
by reason of the opening of such drain or the construction of such dyke.

4. Take such other and further steps with reference to the proceedings
as are provided by this act.

Provision is made for an appeal to the Court by any person aggrieved by the
decision of tlie connnissioners ; for the preparation of maps and surveys; for the
construction of the works under the direction of the commissioners, either by the

Dr.\inage in New York. 281

owners of the land through which the works pass or by general contract; and in
case of inability to agree upon the amount of compensation and damages, for tlie
determination thereof by the commissioners and an assessment upon the lands
benefited. The commissioners are to take into account any benefits accrued and
may deduct the amount of the benefit from the amount of the damage. The dam-
ages and expenses are to be assessed in proportion to the benefits received. Pro-
vision is made for appeal to the Court from the decision of the commissioners in
reference to the assessment, and in case it is confirmed, provision is made for an
application by the conmiissioners for judgment against any person not having paid
the assessment and such judgments shall be docketed and become a lien upon
lands, enforceable as provided in such cases by the Code of Civil Procedure.
The methods of procedure are prescribed in connection with the various sections.

In the decision in the Court of Appeals (163 N. Y. 133) five of the judges con-
curred in the opinion that the law is unconstitutional in that it provides for
assessment against the owner of land taken by eminent domain. ''Strictly con-
strued, the amendment only authorizes laws which will enable an agricultural
landowner, desirous of draining his lands, to exercise the right of eminent
domain, and thereunder to appropriate another's lands for the purpose, under such
restrictions as shall be deemed proper to be made and upon his making due com-
pensation. Xo right is conferred or implied to assess a portion of the cost and
expense upon the other landowners." Judge Gray further held that the amend-
ment to the State Constitution is void, under the Federal Constitution, because
since it docs not, in terms, declare its object to be a public one, it is construed
to refer to agricultural drainage as a private benefit, and the right of eminent
domain cannot be invoked in such cases. On the first ground the New York
Courts are at variance with the Courts of most other states in the application of
the principles of eminent domain, smce they have not permitted an assessment to
be made against the owner whose lands are taken for a pubHc purpose even
though he may derive benefit from the improvement. It is manifestly unfair to
oblige the petitioner to bear all the costs of an improvement from which his
objecting neighbor may derive large benefit.

The critical point in the second declaration and which was concurred in by
only one judge is, that drainage for agricultural purposes in this state is not con-
strued under cither the constitution or the decisions and discussions relating
thereto, to be a public benefit. Since the amendment thereby fails, the law based
upon it must also fail. Drainage for sanitary purposes has been recognized as a
public benefit, thereby permitting procedure by right of eminent domain. The
concensus of opinion in the state is just coming to the point where it will recog-
nize agricultural drainage as a public benefit, as is done in many states and as is
generally true in reference to irrigation in the western states. As is indicated by
the decision, the question may be raised whether it was not the intention to so
recognize agricultural drainage in the passage of the constitutional amendment
and the enactment of the drainage law of 1895. I" an opinion dissenting from
the last declaration. Judge Haight concurred with Judge Parker in saying that,

"While I agree with Judge Gray, that the statute under consideration is
violative of the State Constitution and therefore concur with him in the
result, I am at the same time confident that it was the design of the recent
amendment to Section 7 of Article i of the Constitution, to authorize legis-
lation providing for a workable scheme by which to secure the drainage of
tracts of land, whether large or small, in order to provide for their proper
Utilization thus establishing it to be a part of the fundamental law of the

2^2 Bulletin 254.

State that such drainage constitutes a public use and that such section is not
in conflict with the Federal Constitution."

Referring to the public character of drainage for economic purposes, Judge
Peckham said (164 U. S. 112, 158) :

"The power to drain swamp land does not rest simply upon the ground
that the reclamation must be necessarily for the public health. That indeed
is one ground for interposition by the State, but not the only one. Statutes
authorizing the drainage of swamp lands have frequently been upheld inde-
pendently of any effect upon the public health, as reasonable regulations for
the general advantage of those who are treated for its purpose as owners
of a common property."

On general considerations, drainage would seem as much entitled to recognition
as a public benefit as is irrigation, provisions for which have repeatedly been made
by Federal enactment. The most simple and most effective action would appear
to be to insert a clause in the State's Constitution, in connection with the above
quoted amendment, recognizing agricultural drainage, in terms, as a public benefit
in harmony with other states and the developing spirit in this state. This would
be a sufficiently clear expression of public opinion to claim the attention of the
courts and perhaps bring them up to the position taken in other states in the
application of the principle of eminent domain. If these principles are accepted
the law of 1895 would be valid and could be repassed in total as probably the
most simple and equitable enactment which can be made.

I.TST OF DRAIN TILE DEALERS.
New York.

Firm Name. Town. County.

Jackson, John H Albany Albany.

Genoa Brick and Tile Co Genoa Cayuga.

Ryan & Hall Cortland Cortland.

Lyth Tile Co Buffalo Erie.

Peck & Wood East Bethany Genesee.

Peirson, Edw. E Brooklyn Kings.

Devendorf, Lanning & Co Chittenango Madison.

New York State Sewer Pipe Co Rochester Alonroe.

Rochester Brick and Tile Mfg. Co. . . . Rochester Monroe.

Sangerfield Brick and Tile Co Sangerfield Oneida.

Merrick, C. & L Syracuse Onondaga.

Armstrong, F. P Warner Onondaga.

Abby, B. G Aliens Hill Ontario.

Hollis, Co., W. M Canandaigua Ontario.

Childs, A. S Geneva Ontario.

Johnson, T. W Stanley Ontario.

Empire State Drain Tile Works Stillwater Saratoga.

Cook Brick and Tile Co Ithaca Tompkins.

Lyons Sewer Pipe Wall Plaster Works. Lyons Wayne.

Hilfinger Bros Fort Edward Washington.

.^kron Vitrified Clay Mfg. Co., Akron, Ohio.

United Clay Companies, 39 Cortlandt St., New York City (Agent for Akron
Vitrified Clay Mfg. Co.).

MAY, 1908

BULLETIN 255

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Department of Plant Pathology

BEAN ANTHRACNOSE

ii«.%

■^f •

By H. H. Whetzel

ITHACA, N. Y.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY

ORGANIZATION

Of The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.

FRANKLIN C. CORNELL. Trustee of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station,

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

EXPERIMENTING STAFF

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.

RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry.

T. LYTTLETON LYON, Agronomy.

H. J. WEBBER, Plant Biology.

B. M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology.
MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.
GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.
JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy.

JAMES E. RICE. Poultry Husbandry.
ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation.
W. A. STOCKING, Jr., Dairy Bacteriology.
HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.
G. F. WARREN, Agronomy.
LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.
CHARLES S. WILSON, Horticulture.
M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.
CHARLES F. CLARK, Agronomy.
JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry.
CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology.
J. B. NORTON, Plant Biology.

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry.
P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

D. REDDICK, Plant Pathology.

E. R. MINNS, Agronomy.
G. A. CRABB, Soils.

LEWIS KNUDSON, Plant Physiology.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New
York State who request them.

284

FIRST REPORT ON THE BEAN ANTHRACNOSE

INVESTIGATIONS.

For the past two years the writer has been devoting considerable
time to observations and experiments on the anthracnose or pod-spot
of beans. The investigation has now progressed far enough to warrant
a preliminary report. Certain recommendations usually made for the
control of this disease have been found to be worthless or impractical.
Others appear to be of doubtful value. At least one new factor in the
control of the disease, viz., clean seed obtained by pod selection, has
presented itself and gives promise of solving the problem, A
summarizing of the results obtained thus far on these points, seems
desirable in order that we may determine definite lines of investigation
for our future work, and present to the' grower the latest and
best information which we have on the subject. . The beginning
of the work on this disease was marked by the publication
of Bulletin 239, "Some Diseases of Beans." It was prepared at the
close of the first year's observations on the anthracnose, and is, as
indicated therein, largely a compilation from what appeared to be the
most reliable sources of information. From a careful and exhaustive
study of the literature on the subject up to that time, certain methods of
controlling the disease were proposed and recommended to the growers.
The bulletin was prepared to meet the demand of growers for
information on the subject. Since its publication we have endeavored
to determine, largely by observation in the field, whether or not the
methods there recommended are effective and practicable.

As a result of three years' observation and experience, together with
some experiments directed along the lines of some of the recommenda-
tions made, it seems necessary to modify the generally accepted con-
clusion in regard to the control of this disease. On this account I shall
briefly review the different methods proposed in Bulletin 239, pointing
out certain incorrect or impractical recommendations.

CRITICISM OF BULLETIN 239.

Seed treatment. — Nothing has been done in an experimental way to
determine the accuracy of the conclusions recorded on this point, but
for two reasons the writer believes them to be correct: first, that what
experiments have been reported along the line of seed treatment, have in
general shown that the benefits derived are insignificant, especially when

285

286 Bl-lletin 255.

there is taken into consideration the loss of seed resulting from such
treatment; in the second place, as pointed out in the bulletin under
discussion page 206, "The mycelium of the fttngus is imbedded in the
bean itself, and any poison that will penetrate sufficiently to kill the fungus
will usually kill the seed." In other words, the nature of the bean
Anthracnose disease is such that treatment with poisons cannot be
effective, since they cannot reach the parasite within the tissues of
the host without also destroying the host itself. In the case of oat
smut, for example, the spore of the parasitic fungus, which causes the
disease, is on the outside of the kernel where it may be readily reached
by a poisonous solution. On the other hand, in the case of loose
smut of wheat we have a condition analogous to the bean anthracnose.
Here the fungus enters the young seed, penetrating deeply into the flesh.
It has been found that seed treatment with formalin, for example,
which is effective for the oat smut, is entirely ineffective in the case of
the loose smut of wheat, and for this reason the analogous case of the
bean anthracnose may hardly be expected to be exceptional.

Selection of clean seed. — On page 206, it is recommended that all
beans should be carefully handpicked in order to remove the diseased
seed. Many growers do this regularly in order to obtain a good stand,
for by hand-picking they remove wrinkled and broken seed. It has
also been believed that we might thus eradicate the anthracnose.
Careful germination tests conducted during the winter of 1907, showed
beyond doubt that the anthracnose could not be eradicated in this
manner. In the case of White Beans, a certain amount of the anthrac-
nose may undoubtedly be gotten rid of in this way, but even here the
writer, though using the utmost care to remove every suspicious looking
bean, was unable to remove completely the diseased seed, for upon making
germination test of the seed thus sorted, as much as 12 per cent, was found
to still show the disease. In the case of black or colored beans, sorting to
remove anthracnosed seed was entirely ineffective. One grower who
had been to considerable expense in hand picking his beans, which were
of the Refugee variety, sent samples to the writer both of the clean beans
and the culls. Repeated germination tests from these samples, showed
that on the average as many diseased seed had gotten into the presumably
clean beans, as had been cast out in the culls. In other words, the
grower had thrown away a very large per cent, of his seed, and that too
at a considerable expense. From these observations the writer is forced
to the conclusion that the hand-picking of beans to eradicate or even par-
tially control the pod-spot is of no value, and is therefore not to be recom-
mended.

Bean Axthracxose. 287

Removal of diseased seedlings. — In preparing the first bulletin on
this subject, the writer found that several investigators of this disease
had recommended the removal of diseased seedlings. Theoretically
this would undoubtedly be effective, but it is absolutely impracticable
except in short garden rows, and even then, as the writer has since
satisfied himself many times, only an expert would be able to do effective
work in removing them. Even if it were possible for the ordinary work-
man to recognize every diseased seedling, it would be an endless and
almost impossible task to go over large fields. Their removal, therefore,
may be entirely disregarded as a factor in controlling this disease.

Spraying with Bordeaux mixture. — Several investigators have reported
remarkable results from spraying with Bordeaux mixture. After three
seasons* observations in large bean fields where the most up to date
machinery is used, machinery particularly adapted for the bean crop,
the writer is forced to the opinion, that spraying with Bordeaux mixture
is, to say the very least, unprofitable. It appears to be not only unprofit-
able, but entirel}^ ineffective in reducing the anthracnose. In bean
fields, side by side, one sprayed and the other unspra^^ed, grown from the
same seed on soil almost identical, anthracnose has been equally destruc-
tive. On the other hand, experiments conducted by the writer on a
few rows of beans in experimental plots, have apparently shown that
if thoroughly and properly applied, Bordeaux mixture is effective in
controlling the disease. The difficulty in the field, therefore, seems
to be that the present machiner}^ does not effectively cover the parts
of the bean plant that must be covered with the poison. If the disease
is to be controlled, not only the upper surfaces of the leaves, but the
stems and pods must be coated with the Bordeaux. We have been unable
to find a machine that will do this, after the beans have formed any
considerable top. Until a machine is put on the market that will
cover the stems and pods at any stage in the growth of the plant, little
or no results can be expected from spraying. It is stated in the bulletin
that three sprayings will be sufficient. Some growers have sprayed
their beans almost weekl}' throughout the season, but neither they
nor the writer could see any material results from the sprayings.
At the bottom of page 208, we find the statement that the writer "has
shown that one or two thorough sprayings, even if a large percentage
of the plants were badly diseased, will insure a clean and profitable
crop." He still stands behind that statement, but would point out,
that this was on small experimental rows where the work could be care-
fully done. That it may be possible to control the disease by spraying,
even under field conditions, the writer will grant. More than that.

-288 JJULLETIN 255.

it is proposed to conduct during the next few years careful experiments
to determine if an effective machine may not 3"et be found for this pur-
pose. However, the observations of the past two seasons have brought
to Hght certain conditions, which would still have to be overcome,
even if an effective arrangement of nozzles were worked out. In the
first place, many beans are grown on extremely stony soil. The difficulty
of keeping the nozzles in proper position on such soils is best apparent
to those who have tried the operation. Another difficulty is that of
applying the mixture at the proper time. This is particularly true
during seasons of hea\^ rain. The growing parts of the plant must con-
stantly be kept covered with the mixture. If the soil is soft from heavy
rains, it may be impossible to get on the fields with heavy machinery
in time to make the application effective. But even if these conditions
were finally surmounted, spraying would still remain very expensive
on account of the machiner}^, chemicals, and labor required, and last
and not unimportant, spraying of any kind is an exceedingly unpleasant
business, and can he effectively done only by competent persons. For this
reason, if anothermethod of controlling the disease can be found, it should
certainly be tested out and presented to the grower.

Cultivating or working beans when wet should be avoided as much as
possible. On this point there can be no dispute. The character of the
parasite causing the disease, and the practical experience of growers
everywhere show that this recommendation is correct.

Susceptibility of varieties. — The writer has nothing to add to the
discussion on this point.

NATURE OF THE DISEASE.

The Bean Anthracnose is known to growers under a number of dif-
ferent names, depending largely upon the locality. Perhaps the most
common one applied to this malady is "rust." However, as a matter
of fact the disease is not rust at all, though the spots do have a reddish
yellow color in their early stages. There is a true rust of beans which
is rarely met w4th in ordinar}^ bean fields. Pod-spot is a name which
is frequently applied to the disease, as it appears in the pods. Blight
is also commonly used, but incorrectly so, as we have a true bacterial
blight of beans, which is not only very common, but frequently quite
destructive. The general characters of these three commonest diseases
of beans are set forth in bulletin 239, and accompanied with figures,
which show clearly their respective characters. This bulletin is still
in print and will be sent upon application. Whatever name may be

Bean AxthI'Lvcnose.

289

locally given to the anthracnose, it is still one and the same disease that
most bean growers have in mind. The disease is readily recognized
by the appearance which it gives to the infected pods, and it is here
that the trouble is usually first recognized. Fig. 2 1 7 shows the too familiar

Fig. 217.— -Anthracnose spots or cankers on the pods. The
fungus in these cankers penetrates through the pod into the
bean.

10

290 Bulletin 255.

appearance of this stage of the disease. The spots or cankers are black
with reddish or yellowish margins. Most growers are also familiar
with the appearance of the disease on the seed itself, especially on the
white beans where it makes rusty red spots of different sizes, sometimes
involving nearly the entire seed, though ordinarily only producing a
slight discoloration on one side. (Cover.) The disease enters the seed
by way of the pod, the fungus penetrating from the outside into the young
and tender seed. This is very well shown in Fig. 218. The cankered
pod has been carefully dissected away, showing brown spot
on the bean just underneath. When the diseased seeds
are planted in the soil, and first come through the ground
they are sure to show the small black cankers on the
cotyledons or seed leaves (Fig. 219) and a little later on
the stems. Fig. 220. Growers seldom recognize the disease
^^^ * i on the seedlings as that with which they are familiar on
■4j||P the pods and beans. Many of them have observed the

blackened stubs of badly diseased seedlings, and have
thought the injury due to insects of some kind. Where
badly diseased seed is planted the loss from diseased seed-
lings is at times quite heavy.

History and economic importance of the disease in this
state. — Many growers are inclined to the belief that this is
a new disease that became really destructive for the first

T, on- time during 1006. As a matter of fact, it has long been

Fig. 2 18. — Dis- by > &

eased pod dis-known in this State and was very well described and
iw^^^'I'/z/^Sr-^Sured by Professor Beach of the Geneva Station in Bulletin
eased bean 48, published in 1892. At that time the disease was so
within. severe in the bean -growing regions of the State as to seri-

ously threaten the industry. Like most other fungous diseases the
bean anthracnose has its epidemic periods. Such a period reached
maximum severity in the season of 1906. For three or four years
previous to this time the writer had observed the gradual increase
of this disease in the bean fields which he had occasion to visit
about the State. The epidemic period for this disease, as well as for
many others, follows very closely the periodic variations of weather
conditions. It will be recalled that the season of 1906 w^as a very
rainy one, particularly at the time when the beans were making very
rapid growth in the spring, and also at the time when the pods were
forming. The three or four years preceding this time had been increas-
ingly rainy during the growing period. The gradual increase of the
anthracnpse thus followed directly the increasing raininess of the seasons.

Beax Axtiiracxose.

291

Of course the explanation of this is, not that the rainy seasons caused
the disease, but that they were especially favorable to the spread and
development of the fungus (Colleototrichum lindemuthianum) , which
is the real cause. As a natural result of this there was an increasingly
large amount of infection carried over in each succeeding bean crop,
so that the following season always found a larger number of diseased
plants in the bean fields. These two factors
contributed largely to the epidemic character
of the malady which became so marked in igo6.
Quite a large number of germination tests were
made during the winter of 1907 on the
bean seed of the igo6 crop from various parts
of this and adjoining states. This seed showed
a general average of more than 20 per cent,
of anthracnose in it, many samples showing a
very much larger proportion than that, while a
very few showed as little as 4 per cent. There
was eveiy reason to believe that this seed, if
planted during the season of 1907 would result
in another epidemic of the pod spot. Just the
reverse proved to be the case, but this was due,
not to the want of the disease in the fields,
as I shall point out, but chiefly to one fact,
that the season was exceptionally dry, in par-
ticular at those tim.es when the fungus was
most in need of rain for its development and
distribution, namely, during the early stages of
germination and grow^th of the seedlings, and
later at the time when the pods were being
formed and developed. As a matter of fact, the
disease was very common in practically all of
the bean fields in the State
showed as high as 90 per cent, of the pods spotted with the anthracnose,
but owing to the dry weather these spots never developed sufficiently to
penetrate the pods to any extent, and thus materially affect the beans
within. The bean seed of the crop of 1907, therefore, has been found to be
remarkably free from the pod-spot; although in almost any sample a bean
will be found here and there that is distinctly spotted. On account of
the inadequate greenhouse accommodations during the past winter,
we were unable to test out thoroughly samples of the 1907 seed, but

Fig. 219. — Seedling, just up,
showing the disease on the
cotyledons.

Careful examination of a number of fields

292

Bulletin 255.

from the examinations that the writer has made of this seed, he is
inclined to believe that the seed planted this year will be relatively
free from the disease, though not sufificiently so to prevent serious loss,
should weather conditions be particularly favorable. The practice of

purchasing seed from
distant seedmen, or
from growers in other
parts of this State or
other States, will be
of little or no value
in getting rid of the
anthracnose, as we
have found the dis-
ease to be very gen-
erally distributed
throughout the east-
ern and central United
States and is not un-
known, by any means
in the West.

Cause of the disease.
— As indicated above
the disease is caused
by the fungus, Col-
leototrichum 1 i n d e-
muthianum the main
features of the life
history of which are
well known and have
been carefully de-
tailed in bulletin 239.
Fig. 220. — Showing anthracnose spots on stein and leaves Fig. 221 which is re-
of bean just before blossoyning time. It is from these • . -, r -u n +•

spots that spores are distributed to the pods. prmted trom buUetm

23 9, shows the general
structure of the parasite and the relation which it bears to the
spotted seed within. It may be well to repeat here, what has already
appeared in bulletin 239 on this phase of the subject. "The disease
may and usually does occur, however, on all parts of the plant except
the roots. (Fig. 220). It is caused by a fungus known to botanists
as Colleototrichum lindemuthianuni which lives as a parasite in the tissues
of the bean. This fungus is a plant, as much a plant as the bean on

BiiAx Anthracnosk

293

which it Hves. It has a thread-hke mycelium that grows into the tissue
of the bean to obtain food for its growth and development and it produces
spores that serve the purpose of seeds by which it spreads to healthy
beans and so reproduces itself. In fighting the anthracnose fungus,
we are fighting a parasitic weed, in its habits not greatly unlike the
dodder which often destroys alfalfa."

Anrtiracnose Canker

Anthracnose Spores
much rnQqiiified

Bean Pod
Cut" Across

Starcll Grains

Fig. 221. — Showing the relation of the anthracnose fungus to the tissues of tlte bean.
To the left above is a diagram of a section across a bean pcd through an anthracnose
canker. The large drawing below is a much enlarged view of a portion of this same
section. It is largely diagrammatic. It shows how the mycelial threads of the fungus
m.ay penetrate the seed coat and enter the starchy tissue of the seed, there to remain
dormant until the following season. On the left of the large drawing is shown a
spore germinating and penetrating the epidermis. This germ tube branches, spreads
through the tissues of the pod, and so gives rise to a new spot or canker. To the right
above is shown a magnified view of some of the spores of the anthracnose fungus.
One has germinated. (Original.)

"The fungus itself is too minute to be seen by the unaided eye. This
makes an understanding of its nature and ways of life rather difhcult,
but the picture of the parasite as shown in Fig. 221 will help to make
clear the discussion of the disease. Study the picture carefully before
reading the following account,"

"It is from the attack of the disease on the pods that the most direct
and apparent damage to the crop results. During the time of blossom-

294

Bulletin 255.

ing and previous, the fungus has been spreading and becoming established
on the stems and leaves, and it now attacks the young and succulent
pods. With their tender growing tissue full of water and food materials,
these pods ofTer the best conditions for the growth and development of
the parasite. Spores from the spots on the leaves and stems fall on the
pods, where, in the presence of moisture and the high summer temperature,
they germinate, forming a little sprout or germ-tube, which penetrates
the tender skin of the pod (Fig. 221) and, branching in the juicy tissues,

gives rise to an anthracnose
canker. These first appear
as little brown or rusty spots
which enlarge and darken
until nearly or quite black.
The dead tissue dries and
settles, causing a little pit or
sunken place in the pod. In
the center of the spot the
spores of the fungus are now
produced in great abundance.
They ooze out and pile up,
forming little pink masses
easily seen with the naked
eye (see Figure 217). These
masses of spores are held to-
gether by a kind of glue or
mucilage which, when dry,
sticks them tightly to the
spot. When a drop of rain
or dew falls on the spot the
mucilage is at once dissolved,
and the spores are set free in the water. At this time any disturb-
ance of the bean plants will scatter these spores in the flying drops of
water. In this way they reach health}^ plants near by. This explains
why beans should not be cultivated or handled in the early morning
while the dew is still on them or directly after a shower. The spores of
the anthracnose fungus are scattered only when they are wet. This
will also explain why a warm rainy season is so favorable to the de-
velopment of the fungus. The spores require moisture in which to be
distributed and in which to germinate. A relatively high temperature
is also most favorable to the disease. The spores are produced in un-
limited numbers in the spots on the pod. Fig. 222 shows the spores

Fig. 222. — Spore of the anthracnose fungus
taken on the point of a needle and placed in a
drop of water. Magnified about §5 times. The
large blur is a mass of the spores from which
others have become detached and scattered about
in the water.

Bean Anthracnose. 295

taken on the point of a pin and placed in a drop of water. Only one
of these tiny spores is necessary to start a spot. Under favorable
conditions these spores spread from pod to pod until practically every
bean in a large field may be affected."

CONTROL OF THE DISEASE.

In considering the methods of combatting this disease three or four
possible means are presented. First, seed treatment; Second, spraying;
Third, the planting of clean seed; Fourth, selection and breeding of
resistant or immune varieties.

Seed treatment. — As pointed out above this is of doubtful value,
and cannot be recommended, at least not from investigations yet made.
If some method of eradicating the disease by treating the seed could
be worked out, it would certainly be the most acceptable means of
getting rid of so troublesome a fungus. At present, however, the grower
cannot afford to spend time and money along this line. It is a problem
for the experimentor alone.

Spraying. — This also has been quite fully discussed in the criticism
on bulletin 239, and need receive no further consideration here.

Clean seed. Clean seed will grow clean beans. — It is on this proposi-
tion that most of the work of our future investigations on this disease will
be based. When the writer found that neither the sorting of the seed,
nor the spraying of the fields proved effective in practice, he turned
his attention to the matter of clean seed. From a very careful study
of the fungus that caused the disease, and from observations which he
had made in the field, it seemed pretty conclusive that the fungus
is carried over from one season to the next, largely, if not entirely in
the seed. If then, some method can be found by which perfectly clean
seed can be obtained, the problem will be solved. Several experiences
have pointed to the conclusion that this would work out in practice.
A variety of Black V/ax beans were brought by the writer from Indiana
in the spring of 1904, and planted in a garden where no beans had been
grown, at least for many years. These beans gave a crop perfectly
free from the anthracnose and this was more remarkable, since prac-
tically all of the beans whether of this or other varieties, grown in neigh-
boring gardens were badly spotted that season. Seed saved from this
crop was planted the following season, 1905, in a garden where, the pre-
vious season, beans had been badly affected with the pod spot. More
than that, they were planted in almost the identical place where the
diseased beans had been grown in 1904. Again, they gave a crop
perfectly free from the anthracnose, while as before the same variety

296 Bulletin 255.

grown from seed purchased in the city market gave a diseased crop.
The two gardens in which these crops of beans were grown were side
by side, separated only by a woven wire fence, the ends of the rows of
the beans in the two gardens being not more than 20 feet apart. During
the winter of 1905-06, the seed saved from this crop w^as almost entirely
destroyed by weevils, so that for the planting of 1906 there was only a
very small quantity of seed, sufficient to plant only a part of a row across
the garden. Seed of the same variety, with which to complete the
planting, was purchased in the city market, one long row being completed
across the garden. Shortly after the beans were up the disease became
quite virulent in the plants grown from the purchased seed, while none
was to be found in that grown from selected seed of the previous season.
All of the plants were thoroughly sprayed once, but the disease had
at that time made such progress that it was not controlled, and a gradual
spreading of the disease was observed in the row on adjoining plants
from clean seed, so that by the time the crop was ready to harvest,
only a few of the plants from the clean seed showed pods entirely free
from anthracnose. This clearly indicated that the absence of the
disease the two preceding years had not been due to varietal resistance.
It could be explained only on the basis that there had been no disease
in the seed. It further indicated that the disease was not readily carried
from one garden to another, else the crop of 1905 should certainly have
been diseased. During the winter of 1905-06 a small amount of this
seed was sent to a lady near Ithaca, who had been unable to grow Black
Wax beans for a number of years, that were free from the pod-spot.
She reported a perfectly clean crop in 1906 and saved seed for the fol-
lowing season. At the end of the season, 1907, she again reported a
crop entirely free from the spot. It should be pointed out here, that
the clean crops of 1906 came in a year when the bean anthracnose
was particularly destructive. During the season of 1907, the writer
did not plant anj^ seed from the crop of 1906, as what little he succeeded
in saving from the uninfected plants, was totally destroyed by weevils
during the winter. Fortunately the lady to whom he sent the seed in
1905, sent hiin during the winter of 1907 a small quantity of this seed,
which is presumably free from the anthracnose. This will be planted
in 1908, and the writer has every reason to believe that it will give a
clean crop.

During the winter of 1906-07, communication was received from
a gentleman, in the western part of the United States, who grows beans
to a limited extent on irrigated lands. The gentleman declared that
he was able to plant diseased seed, received from any of the North East-

Bean Anthracnose. 297

ern States, on liis irrigated land, and grow a crop perfectly free from
the parasite. He accompanied his statement with about a quart of
Warden's Kidney Wax beans, which he had grown on his irrigated
lands during the season of 1906. Careful germination tests were made
of this seed and no evidence of the anthracnose was to be discovered.
The seed was planted during the season of 1907 on an isolated plot of
land on the University Farm. At the same time on another plot of
land about a quarter of a mile distant was planted seed of the Davis
White Wax and Refugee Green Pod, both of which showed by germina-
tion test, a large percentage of diseased seed. The Wardell Kidney Wax
from the irrigated lands gave a crop entirely free from the anthracnose
except for one plant. This plant was at the end of the patch, along
which ran a foot path leading directly from a house across the road
into the University farm opposite. x\s there was a garden with diseased
beans at the house across the way, it seemed very probable that the
infection was carried in by some person passing through this diseased
patch and along this pathway. All of the plants in the immediate neigh-
borhood of the infected one were carefully examined, but absolutely
no trace of the disease was to be found on any of them. This plant was
removed and destroyed. The diseased seed planted in the plot a quarter
of a mile away gave a crop that was very generally affected with the
anthracnose, and this bear in mind, during the season of 1907, when
weather conditions were very unfavorable to the development of the
disease. These observations and experiences convince the writer that
here is the most promising suggestion for a practical and effective
method of controlling the disease. It seems evident, first, that the
disease is carried over entirely in the seed; second, that the disease is
not ordinarily carried for any considerable distance by natural agents,
such as rain, wind, etc.; third, that if perfectly clean seed is planted
and ordinary precaution taken to prevent the introduction of the disease
on tools, or by workmen, a perfectly clean crop can be produced, even
in seasons the most favorable to the development of the fungus.

Methods of obtaining clean seed. — It is first necessary to work out a
satisfactory method of obtaining clean seed of the varieties particularly
desired in any locality. As has been clearly shown, hand sorting of
the seed, after it is has been thrashed from the pods, is a failure, so far as
eradicating the anthracnose is concerned. Even if a large percentage
of the disease might be eliminated in this way, it would still be in-
effective, since in seasons favorable to the disease, a very small percent-
age of affected seed might be sufficient to destroy or seriously injure
the crop.

298 Bulletin 255.

Considering the manner in which the fungus finds its way into the seed,
it seems evident that if no spots are to be found on the pods, none of the
seed within will be diseased. That is to say, healthy pods contain healthy
seed. It is just possible that we may have one exception to this, though,
so far as the writer has been able to find there is no positive evidence
in favor of such an exception, namely, that infection of the seed may
take place by way of the blossom, without any evidence of such infection
on the pod or in fact in the seed itself at maturity. Blossom infection
is known to take place in a number of fungous diseases, but the nature
of this disease is such that, that hardly seems probable. It has been
pointed out by some that the sudden and destructive appearance of
the disease in pods at a certain stage in their development, seems to
indicate that something of this sort takes place. It is a common observa-
tion also, that pods picked in the evening apparently entirely free from
the disease will sometimes be found the following morning to be very
badly spotted, and shippers of garden truck have often suffered serious
losses from the development of this disease in snap beans during the
short time required for the transportation from fields to market. Never-
theless, while the writer has seen several cases of this nature, he has
never been satisfied that the infection was not due to the ordinary inocula-
tion of the pods by spores from occasional diseased pods among the
healthy; the rapid development of the disease in such cases being due
ordinarily to favorable conditions of temperature and moisture. Sur-
prisingly enough in the cases of this kind of which the writer has known,
a relatively low temperature, particularly a sudden drop in the tempera-
ture seems to have been the controlling factor. If then, the principle
laid down, that healthy pods contain healthy seeds, holds true, it seems
that we have a fairly easy means of obtaining clean seed. During the
season of 1907 the writer undertook the selection of clean pods of a
number of varieties of beans in order to determine whether it would be
practical and effective. On account of the large amount of work on
hand during the autumn, only a very small amount of seed of a few
varieties was thus obtained. Perhaps, enough to plant half an acre of
a total of five or six varieties. Some germination tests of the seed thus
obtained were made during the winter of 1907-08, and in no case was
any anthracnose discovered. This seed has been planted during the
season of 1908, to see if it will give a perfectly healthy crop. However,
the conditions under which the seed of this year were collected were
far from favorable. In the first place, the selection and sorting of the
seed had to be left largely to students or inexperienced assistants;
in the second place, the season was so far advanced when the selection

Bean Anthracnose. 299

of pods was made when most of them were over-ripe and in some cases
covered with sand and dirt from heavy rains. The selections should
have been made at the time when the pods began to shrivel but before
they had become perfectly dry. It was found that hand picking and
sorting of these pods was not nearly so difficult a problem as one might
expect. The anthracnose cankers are so large and readily recognized,
that with a little coaching any person of ordinary intelligence and care
may be depended upon to sort out the healthy pods. It was necessary
however to examine both sides of every pod.

Our experience with seed grown on irrigated lands is too limited to
warrant us in coming to any definite conclusions in regard to it. The
philosophy of the matter is that, "since there is no moisture in the air,
(as no rain falls at the particular place where this crop is grown) the
spores of the fungus cannot be distributed," for as pointed out on page
440, the spores remain glued to the spot on which they are developed
until dissolved in a drop of rain or dew. We would naturally infer
therefore, that where no rain or dew falls upon the parts of the plants
above ground, spores would never find the necessary means for distribu-
tion. It is not safe, however, to conclude from the limited experience
of the writer that seed from all irrigated lands will be found to be free from
the disease. However, such sources are worth consideration , and the writer
proposes to again this year plant the clean seed obtained from last years
crop of Wardell Kidney Wax, and has already received seed from the
same seedman of two varieties of beans of the crop of 1907. These will
also be planted and tested out in the same way. The following extract
from a letter from Dr. W. A. Orton of the Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, may be of interest in this connection.

"In regard to the possibility of bringing seed beans from irrigated
regions, I would say that during my summer trips I had several oppor-
tunities of observing conditions in irrigated districts, and for the first
time. I am somewhat surprised to find how prevalent fungous diseases
may become in irrigated fields. In a number of instances I found
peronosporas, anthracnoses, and similar fungi, prevalent in irrigated
fields, where the operations of watering were carried on in such a way as
to create a moisture laden atmosphere around the plants, although the
general conditions in the locality were, of course, extremely dry. I did
not happen upon any bean fields on irrigated lands, but I do not doubt
that such fields might be free from anthracnose, as you have found in
your experience. I do doubt very much, however, whether it would be
safe to rely upon seed from irrigated fields. . The Pacific Coast points
which I mentioned, are peculiar in that beans are regularly grown from

300 BULLETIX 255.

planting to harvest without a drop of rainfall or irrigation water. Condi-
tions in the West are however extremely variable and each locality-
must be studied by itself for I found localities like this just mentioned,
which were, nevertheless, subject to occasional outbreaks of fungous
diseases because they were exposed to continued hea\^^ fogs from the
Pacific. This makes an additional reason why general statements
in regard to the source of seed would not be reliable."

RESISTANT OR IMMUNE VARIETIES.

Very little work, so far as the writer has been able to discover, has
been done along this line, and as pointed out in the criticism on bulletin
239, nothing can be added at the present time to this phase of the subject,
It is proposed during the season of 1 908 to make a test of as many varie-
ties of beans as can be gotten together to determine what ones may be
found more or less resistant to this disease, and perhaps later to carry
on in connection with the Plant Breeding Department, some work in
breeding resistant varieties. Little immediate relief, however, can be
promised from results of such work, since even if resistant varieties are
obtained, there will probably be no satisfactory types that can at once be
substituted for varieties now generally recognized as most favorable for
certain purposes. There would probably be required at best, yearsof selec-
tion to bring them to a condition where they would be of general value.

PLANS OF FUTURE WORK.

A plan of the future work on this problem, may not be out of place
in concluding this outline. Briefly, the lines along which the work on
this problem are to be prosecuted are as follows: In general the plan
comprises, first experiments on the University Farm, carried on under
the careful and constant observation of the writer and an assistant,
who will be chiefly concerned with this problem for the next three years ;
second, with cooperative growers about the State, to test in the field
the results obtained in an experimental way here at the Station. The
chief problems to be solved are :

First, to test the effectiveness of clean pod selection as a means of
obtaining clean seed and to demonstrate whether such seed will under
all weather conditions grow a clean crop, without spraying or any other
treatment for the disease.

Second, to devise and test out a practical method of obtaining sufficient
clean seed for planting the crop each year. The latter will be largely
cooperative work with the grower.

Third, to determine whether the fungus is carried over winter in the
soil, or on tops, pods, etc., and thus to find out whether it will be safe

r^

Bean Anthracnose. 301

to follow beans with beans year after year, as is sometimes deemed
advisable by growers of snap beans.

Fourth, to determine whether the seed within the pod may be infected
by the parasite without showing any external evidence on the pod.

Fifth, to determine whether seed grown on irrigated lands in regions
where there is no rain fall, will be found to be constantly free from the
disease.

Sixth, to determine the value of spraying in large field operations
and to test out the effectiveness of various types of machines devised
for this purpose.

Seventh, to determine whether closely related species or strains of the
anthracnose fungi occurring on other common hosts, such as apple, grape,
watermelon, etc., will cause the disease in beans, and vice versa.

Eighth, to develop strains of resistant or immune varieties by means
of selection or hybridization.

Ninth, to determine the value of various methods of seed treatment.

It is the purpose of the Plant Pathologist at this station to make the
investigation of this disease of beans, one of the chief lines of work for
the next three or more years, until the problem is finally and satisfactorily
solved. To this end Mr. M. F. Barrus, recently appointed assistant
in this Department, has been detailed to devote a large part of his time
to the problem and it is expected that the matter will be thoroughly
thrashed out before it is dropped.

The results and recommendations presented in this bulletin are based on
experiments and observations covering a relatively short period of time.
More extensive experiments covering a period of years will be necessary
before definite conclusions can be reached on all the points herein dis-
cussed. The writer shall not hesitate to abandon any of the recommen-
dations or suggestions presented if they prove incorrect or impractical.
This is simply a record of progress, to clear the ground for the next
step in the solution of this problem. So important is it to the grower
that he should have early advantage of every possible way of combatting
these pests so destructive to his crops, that the writer at this time pre-
sents what conclusions and suggestions he has even at the risk of having
later to modify or withdraw them. Correspondence on this subject is
earnestly requested. It is hoped that considerable seed for cooperative
experiments with growers may be obtained this season. We shall be
glad to outline plans and give what assistance we can to any one who may
desire to obtain clean seed for next year's planting. Address all communi-
cations to Department of Plant Pathology, New York State College of
Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. H. H. Whetzel.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION

The Following Bulletins are Available for Distribution to Those
Residents of New York State Who May Desire Them.

93

121
129

134
135

137

130
140
141

142
143
144

146
147

■4«
140
150
151
152
153
154

155
157
15«

162
163

164

166
168
170
171

172
176

'T)
180
182

183
184

185

186

187
i8g
190

The Cigar-Case-Bearer.

Suggestions for planting Shrubbery.

How to conduct Field Experiments with

Fertilizers, 11 pp.
Strawberries under Glass.
Forage Crops.
Chrysanthemums.
Agricultural Extension Work, Sketch of its

Origin and Progress.
Third Report upon Japanese Plums.
Second Report upon Potato Culture.
Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among

Swill-Fed Hogs.
The Codling-Moth.
Sugar Beet Investigations.
Suggestions on Spraying and on the San

Jose Scale.
Some Important Pear Diseases.
Fourth Report of Progress on Extension

Work.
Fourth Report upon Chrysanthemums.
Quince Curculio.
Some Spraying Mixtures.
Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control.
Gravity of Dilution Separators.
Studies in Milk Secretion.
Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries.
Table for Computing Rations for Farm

Animals.
Second Report on San Jose Scale.
Grape-vine Flea- beetle.
Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bacteria

in Cheese Curd.
The Period of Gestation in Cows.
Three Important Fungous Diseases of

Sugar Beet.
Peach Leaf-Curl.
Ropiness in Milk and Cream.
Sugar Beet Investii^ations for 1808.
Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms;
Tent Caterinllars.
Concerning Patents on Gravity or Dilution

Separators.
The Cherry Fruit-Fly; A New Cherry Pest.
The Peach-Tree Borer.
Field Experiments with Fertilizers.
The Prevention of Peach Leaf-Curl.
Sugar Beet Investigations for 1899.
Sugar Beet Pulp as a Food for Cows.
The Grape Root-Worm; New Grape Pest

in New York.
The Common Eurotiean Praying Mantis; A

New Beneficial Insect in America.
The Sterile Fungus Rhizoctonia.
The Palmer Worm.
Oswego Strawberries.
Three Unusual Strawberry Pests and a

Greenhouse Pest.

the

II.

192 Further Experiments against the Peach-

Tree Borer.

193 Shade Trees and Timber Destroying Fungi.

1 94 The Hessian Fly. Its Ravages in New York

in 1 90 1.

195 Further Observations upon the Ropiness in

Milk and Cream.

196 Fourth Report on Potato Culture.

198 Orchard Cover Crops.

199 Separat(.)r Skimmed Milk as Food for Pigs.

200 Muskmclons.

206 Sixth Report of Extension Work.

207 Pink Rot an Attendant of Apple Scab.

208 The Grape Root-Worm.

209 Distinctive Characteristics of the Species of

the Genus Lecanium.

210 Commercial Bean Growing in New York.
212 Cost of Producing Eggs. Second Report.
216 Spraying for Wild Mustard and the Dust

Spray.

219 Diseases of Ginseng.

220 Skimmed Milk for Pigs.

221 Alfalfa in New York.

222 Attempt tf) Increase the Fat in Milk by

Means of Liberal Feeding.
225 Bovine Tuberculosis.

227 Cultivation of Mushrooms by Amatevirs.

228 Potato Growing in New York.

231 Forcing of Strawberrier, Tomatoes, Cucum-

bers and Melons.

232 Influence of Fertilizers upon the yield of

Timothy Hay.

233 Two New Shade-Tree Pests.

234 The Bronze Birch Borer.

235 Cooperative Spraying Experiments.

237 Alfalfa — A Report of Progress.

238 Buckwheat.

239 Some Diseases of Beans.

240 The Influence of Mushrooms on the Growth

of some Plants.

241 Second Report on the Influence of Fertili-

zers on the Yield of Timtjthy Hay.

242 Cabbages for Stock Feeding.

243 Root Crops for Stock F"eeding.

244 Culture and Varieties of Roots for Stock

Feeding.
24.'; Spray Calendar.

246 Gasoline-Heated Colony Brooder-House.

247 Importance of Nitrogen in the Gnjwth »{

Plants.

249 Four Methods of Feeding Early Hatched

Pullets.

250 Bovine Tuberculosis.

251 Plant-Breeding for Farmers.

252 Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

253 Blaek-rot of the Grape.

254 Drainage in New York.

Address,

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

ITHACA, N. Y.
302

JUNE. 1908

BULLETIN 256

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Department of Rural Art (Extension Work)

STREET TREES

THEIR CARE AND PRESERVATION

5^.

n

By albert D. TAYLOR

ITHACA, N. Y.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY

ORGANIZATION

Op The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station.

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

the agricultural college and station council I

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.
ROBERT H. TREMAN, Trustee of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station. ,

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. |

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.
HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

experimenting staff
LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.
JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.
HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.
JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.
T. LYTTLETON LYON, Soil Investigations.
H. J. WEBBER, Plant-Breeding.

B. M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology.
MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.
GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.
JOHN L. STONE, Farm Practice.
JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry.
ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soils.

W. A. STOCKING, Jr., Dairy Bacteriology.
HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.
G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops.
LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.
CHARLES S. WILSON, Pomology.
M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.

C. A. PUBLOW, Dairy Industry.
CHARLES F. CLARK, Agronomy.
JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry.
CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology.

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry.
P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

D. REDDICK, Plant Pathology.

E. R. MINNS Farm Practice.
G. A. CRABB, Soils.

LEWIS KNUDSON, Plant Physiology.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New
York State who request them.

304

CARE AND PRESERVATION OF STREET TREES

Much has been written with reference to the cHseases of shade trees
and their control, but there seems to be Httle information bearing on
other phases of shade-tree work. This bulletin is intended to be the
first of two publications relating to this subject; and while its purpose
is to discuss the care and preservation of street trees, no attempt is
made to touch on the diseases of trees caused by insects and fungi. The
wa-iter's object is to point out, and to show by means of illustrations
and discussion, the harm to which our trees are subjected through
ignorance and neglect, and to awaken within the minds of public spirited
citizens a feeling that may prompt them to join forces in an efifort to
protect that to which nature has given them a life-lease, but not an undis-
puted ownership.

The writer is indebted for valuable photographs and suggestions to
Mr. J. Horace McFarland, president of the American Civic /\ssociation
(Figs. 226. 227, 228, 235) ; The Newark Shade Tree Commission; The
East Orange Shade Tree Commission ; The Cleveland Park Commission
(Fig. 224) ; Boston Park Commission (Fig. 225), and Mr. John T.
Withers. Landscape Gardener and Forester (Figs. 253, 254, 255, 256) ;
and to others.

I. Sources of Injury to Street Trees. (Pages 305-323)

The sources of injury are many and serious, and the average citizen
realizes only too keenly that they are increasing. The many dangerous
enemies, against the ravages of which shade trees must be protected,
are of no trifling importance when considered in their relation to the
public welfare. On every side the observer may see numerous evidences
of these injuries, which become inexcusable when we learn that the great
majority of them can be traced to neglect or ignorance on the part of
owners or others,

(7.) Public utilities.

Trees are seriously damaged by escaping gas which penetrates the sur-
rounding soil, by electricity which is discharged from the wires that
come in contact with them, and by telegraph and telephone linemen
who may be encouraged to disregard the value of a tree in order to
run a line of wires with the least possible inconvenience. EiTectively

305

3o6

Bulletin 256.

■H^-J*^

/*"-T^'"-""'

'. i-'«^' '^p^^ati- ' '

*i:'.#.v

"^M

^ili.

li

^ ' In

^^

Fic. 223. — Avenues of this type are valuable assets to towns and cities. Every
care should be taken to preserve them. Improvement societies should foster
public sentiment to insure their safety.

Street Trees. 307

to control such dangers means the enforcing of old laws and perhaps
the adoption of new ones.

(a) Gas. The number of trees suffering from the effects of gas
appears, from reports, to be increasing. The introduction of larger gas
mains to meet the increasing demands of consumers has magnified the
opportunity for leakage into the surrounding soil; and this, together
with the fact that street surfaces are paved or macadamized, which
tends to confine the escaping gas, explains the sickly and unhealthy
appearance of thousands of shade trees. Professor G. E. Stone, of
the Massachusetts Agricultural College, for a number of years has
conducted experiments on the injury to trees by gas escaping into the
soil, and he has demonstrated the fact that hundreds of trees in cities
and towns are killed each year by this means. The degree to which
trees may be injured depends on the quantity of gas coming in contact
with the roots. In many localities the volume of escaping gas may
be but a few cubic feet each day. The trees affected by small amounts
very often show no marked effects the first few months or even years;
however, with this continual flow into a soil from which it cannot
escape, the time will finally come when the trees will be killed.
When large quantities of gas escape each day, the trees whose roots
penetrate the soil that is vitiated, will show signs of injury in a few
months, and sometimes in a few weeks. An instance of this is cited,
in which, in one small city with four miles of laid pipe, there were
along the line of the pipe, two years after laying, about one hundred
trees that had been injured beyond recovery. Here Professor Stone
estimated that three or four hundred additional trees had been so
strongly affected by the gas that they were certain to die pre-
maturely.

One of the injuries resulting from escaping gas is the presence of a
greater or less amount of dead wood throughout the specimen each
year. This condition is frequently seen when the leakage is small,
and the ground, being aerated because of its open character or because
of the absence of a water-tight layer of road material, does not
become sufficiently charged to cause immediate death to the tree.
In the case of severe injury to large trees, causing their complete or
partial defoliation, there remains little hope of recover}', and their
immediate removal is advised.

The detection of trees that are suffering from gas in the soil
requires the services of one who has had experience with trees thus
affected. The most common indications of gas-poisoning are the yellow-
ing and drying of the leaves during early summer and their subsequent

3o8

Bulletin 256.

early falling, the loosening of the bark and its falling away from the
trunk, the appearance of fungous growths on the trunk and branches,
and the occasional peculiar color and odor of the wood. The best
method of treating trees which show the early stages of injury from

gas is at once to aerate the soil in
the immediate vicinity of the roots
by breaking up the hard coating on
the surface. The practice of open-
ing a ditch and leaving it open for
some time has frequently saved
trees.

This injur\^ to street trees from
gas has been demonstrated so con-
clusively that gas companies now
recognize the fact, and often settle
damages for suits brought against
them on this account. Some of
the settlements which such com-
panies have made for trees injured
or killed in this way have ranged
from $5.00 to $1 50.00 per tree, de-
pending on the location and the
valuation of the abutting property.
There seems to be but one means
of controUing this danger, and
that is to cause gas companies to
be more careful in the inspection
of newly made joints by the impo-
sition of suitable fines for injuries.
Public sentiment should control
in such work.

(b) Electricity. The network of
electric railroads and electric light-
ing systems, which serve as a means
of more closely uniting our cities and towns, has proved a dangerous
enemy to shade-tree life. There is a constantly increasing number of
fatal injuries from the contact of live wires with the trees.

The injuries caused to trees from electricity, directly or indirectly,
are a source of much complaint. Telephone companies sometimes cut
their way through avenues of trees, and the electric light companies
often go farther and in many cases burn their way through.

Fig. 224. — Wires should seldom be at-
tached' to trees; the cross-bars injure
the batk.

Street Trees.

309

While the instances of the direct killing of trees because of escaping
electricity are not so numerous as some would have us believe, yet the
damage from this source is important. The wires of these companies,
often carr}'ing heavy
currents, are gen-
erally placed adjacent
to, or directly over
the lines of avenue
plantings. It is dur-
ing wet weather,
when parts of a tree
are in contact with
live wires, that the
greatest damage to
the tree arises from
this source of injury.
The wires used for
lighting purposes are
considered more dan-
gerous than those of
traction companies.
This is ti"ue, in the
first place, because
the former are more
often likely to be lo-
cated in the tree belt ;
and in the second
place, the voltage and
current are greater.
There are many cases
cited in which the
burning from contact
with branches has
been such that it
necessitated the re-
moval of a leader
and thus spoiled the

symmetry of the tree. Large numbers of trees on city streets, adjacent
to lines of electric wires, are sickly and disfigured. "Without further
investigation, this condition is sometimes attributed to the effects of
electricity, while, as a matter of fact, it can often be traced to other

Fig. 225. — A row of beautiful trees damaged beyond
recovery to allow the passage of wires.

310

Bulletin 256.

adverse city conditions. Societies should take all precautions necessary
to safeguard their trees against any of the possible detrimental influences
arising from electricity in any form, and by so doing avoid complaint
against companies for injuries to trees for which they really are not
responsible.

(c) Injuries incident to the presence of electric and telephone wires.
Aside from the fact that street trees may suffer much damage

from the effect of gas
on the roots, and
from the burning ef-
fects of electricity,
there is a third and
perhaps more im-
portant source of in-
jury. This is the
wholesale slaughter
of beautiful avenues
of trees in both city
and country, in order
to open a passage-
way for the wires be-
longing to a corpora-
tion, the members of
which plead immun-
ity because of the
nature of the utility
they are providing for
the public. Equipped
with spiked climbers
and an axe or a saw
(usually the for-
mer), the employees
open up spaces in the tops of trees through which wires may be
carried (see Fig. 225). Lacking in appreciation of the beautiful
and practicing no economy, these men may disfigure trees which
have been the pride of a community for years. They cut the trees
back far enough to insure no immediate contact with the proposed
line of wires, and thus may leave them in such a weakened condition
that, should they ever recover from the shock, they could never
develop into an\'thing other than diseased, deformed or dwarfed
specimens. (See Fig. 226).

Fig. 226. — A row of trees dehorned in order to permit
the unobstructed passage of overhead wires.

Street Trees.

311

In this day of large expenditures for the betterment of rural con-
ditions, it is time that these devastations of our street trees were con-
sidered seriously by the public, and restraining action taken. (See
Municipal Control of Street Trees, p. 483). The adoption of special city
and town ordinances can be made to control this matter completely. Such
ordinances may provide that if overhead wires must traverse the streets,
then some responsible
and duly qualified per-
son shall supervise the
pruning of the trees,
when it is necessary in
order to make a pas-
sage for wires.

The butchery that is
practiced when wires
are first strung, and
later at intervals to
prevent the subsequent
growths from coming
in contact with the
wires, is not the only
evil against which the
public must protect it-
self. The removal of
broken branches, and
of those injvired and
killed through contact
with electric wires,
should be supervised, to
insure the best develop-
ment of the tree; and
this, also, should require
the services of one who

thoroughly understands the nature of the work, in order that cuts
shall be properly made, wounds properly dressed and protected, and
no unnecessary harm done to the tree. Sometimes the linemen who
go over the streets to inspect the condition of the trees and wires
carry with them instructions to remove all small branches which are
interfering with the path of the wires, and to remove no large branches
without consulting their employer. Such instructions seem to be verv'
adequate; but there are many young trees whose tops are just coming to

rn^- :./

, ^x.

B'' J^nn

ISV - ■•''■—-■■ '"--^^r^- '.: x-^«i'^-^i:^^n

i 4

Jfti «)[vjK 'iA''\]iB

WKK^VKUmfrS

w *". JsmJ*'^ ^

•i4 1

IKi^ll^^nK^

yj^w^/

It

mpmg

^h/

1

^^^^»

m

i

f^^Ij^jM^^^bH

H

^"j^Ewi

H

^^l^^^^^lEi^^^'

^>M

^^^y

M^^^^B

^^^HHJIf^"'''

sL*k|

^^^^^^^^H

^^^^^^^^^H^^'

n

I^H

^^H ^

1

p ^^^s

[H

HPii^

■l

Hi^~

^^^H

Bj^P^

H

^^^^^n»MB

I^^^^BE^^^^

1^^

^^^^1

_ ' .

■

^^^^^P

Fig.

227.

-A roadside row of poplars before being
trimmed.

312

Bulletin 256.

the danger line, and their branches being small are removed without
hesitation, while large side branches on big trees are left according to
directions. The effect of such a pruning becomes apparent when one
realizes that it is not the size of the branch but the relation that it must
bear to the future development of the tree, that should govern its treat-
ment. Small branches that are leaders are often more important than

large side branches.

The effective method of
controlling this evil is to
demand that the com-
panies shall place their
wires underground. The
sight of poles along city
streets is not wholly bad,
if the street be properly
planted ; but the danger to
trees which seems to be
inseparable from the pres-
ence of poles will never be
overcome while the over-
head system is retained.

A suggestion for con-
trolling the placing of
overhead wires and over-
coming their injuries is
that each city and town
should adopt one of the
following three methods
of procedure:

(i.) The construction
by the municipality of a
conduit, the requirement
being made by the local government that the wires of the corporations
be placed therein. The initial expense of the construction of such a
conduit and of its subsequent maintenance, together with the interest
on the money invested, may be covered by requiring each of the
companies to pay an annual rental.

(2.) The enactment of an ordinance requiring companies that use
any of the main avenues to put their wires underground at the rate of a
certain number of miles each year; and that no new lines be permitted
to be constructed above ground on the designated streets.

Fig. 228. — The same row of poplars after having
been butchered by "professional pruners."

Street Trees.

313

(3.) For the rural districts and the larger towns, these companies
might be required to lease a privilege to erect lines of wires across private
property ; such lines to be a specified distance back from the street and in
the rear of the buildings. Thus, to a great
extent, these localities would be able to
protect their trees.

In the city of Lowell, Mass., the park
authorities have adopted an ordinance which
requires wires to be covered with wooden
tubes wherever they must be carried through
the trees. Another means of protection is
to fasten the wires to large branches by
means of an insulated "eye-pin," which
prevents the wire from rubbing against and
burning the bark. The chafing of the
branches by the wires during wind storms is
sometimes quite as fatal to the branch as
the burning.

(2.) Tree butchery.

When the writer mentions tree butchery,
he has no reference to a certain small but
capable group of men who are following
the occupation of "tree surgerv^" and
who, through the aid of careful methods,
are rendering valuable service to the public.
He has in mind those men, who, through
ignorance of the fundamental principles
which underlie the operations they would
perform and yet with the best of inten-
tions, have ruined whole avenues of valu-
able trees by the ver}^ process which was
intended to prolong the lives of these trees
and to add to their beauty and usefulness.

This kind of injury is of course easily
avoided; and each year the perpetration of
such offenses against the lives of street trees
is becoming less and less pronounced, due
partly to the fact that special ordinances have been passed in cer-
tain cities, taking away from the individual property owners all direct
active control over trees adjoining their property.

Fig. 229. — Construction work
may be the means of great
injury to street trees.

314

Bulletin 256.

To avoid impositions, it is only necessary to establish the
standard by employing as pruners only individuals with reputa-
tions well established, or with recommendations from competent

men.

(j.) Construction work.

The injuries which trees re-
ceive because they are located
in the neighborhood of con-
struction work or because they
are in the path of buildings
which are being moved, present
another serious problem to all
municipal governments (Fig.
229). Trees are thus mutilated
in a number of ways as : by the
moving of btiildings, being used
as supports for guy wires, pil-
ing building materials against
the trunk, and regrading around
the base of the trees. All of
these dangers must be guarded
against if trees so located are
to be preserved. The piling of
brick, lumber, and stone slabs
close against the trunk may
cause injuries which allow
decay to enter at that point.
Tying guy wires for the pur-
pose of supporting derricks or
telephone poles (Fig. 230), is a
common practice, and will cause
no injury to the tree if properly
done. It is done so often with-
out protecting the tree, how-
ever, that serious injur}" results
(Fig. 231). The correct method of attaching a wire of this kind to a
tree is to place a number of -small strips of board against the trunk,
parallel to its axis, and then bring the pressure of the wires to bear
directly on these (Fig. 233). If the trunk is forked, the wire may be
carried between the branches near the crotch and attached to a cross
piece which, being placed transversely to the axis of the two branches,

Fig. 230. A frequent method of attaching
guy-wires to street trees, and one which
should not be permitted.

Street Trees.

315

(Fig. 232), brings the pressure to bear on each, and no mechanical injury-
is caused to the tree. When the pole to be guyed brings little pressure
to bear on the wire, a lag-screw may be placed
in the side of the tree and the guy wires fast-
ened thereto. In any case, the growth of the
tree may continue without the common dan-
ger of its being girdled. Telephone com-
panies, who are still the main sources of this
injury, are only too willing to have a less
dangerous method demonstrated to them.
Public sentiment would soon control the

situation.

The cutting away of Fig. 231.— .4 common injury

branches in order to
make an unobstructed
road for the moving

resulting from the careless
attachment of guy-wires.

Fig.

232.

of a building along a
highway is frequently seen. The reader has
probably seen once beautiful elms with one
of their main branches cut away, presumably
because it was easier to remove the branch en-
tirely than to vary the path of the structure
(Fig. 234). Adjacent property owners, knowing
that such offenders are guilty of an offense, and
that they are laying themselves liable to heavA^
-A safer way fines, should obtain from the court an injunction
of attaching guy-wires ^ j^g^^s of which the

to tT6€S,

work could be delayed
until a judgment may be given.

The regrading, widening, and general im-
provement of highways cause annually the
unnecessary loss of many beautiful park and
avenue trees. Often, with no intelligent per-
son to direct this part of the work, large
numbers of trees are removed which could
well have remained (Fig. 235). Because a
street has been widened, and a valuable tree
stands where it may inconvenience traffic a
little in the new arrangement, is not sufficient
justification for its removal. In such instances,
the situation should be carefully investigated and the evidence on
both sides considered. The sentiments associated with old landmarks

Fig. 233. — The correct
method, if a tree must be
used for sucJi purposes.

3i6

Bulletin 2^6.

are often too strong to be considered as trifling. The tree to be
removed may be so valuable a factor in the aesthetic life of the com-
munity that the inconvenience of going around it will never be great
enough to warrant its removal.

In regrading lawn areas it sometimes becomes necessary to make deep
cuts or large fills about the bases of trees, which would cause their death
were they not properly protected. In general, when cuts or fills average
between one foot and three feet in depth, the tree may be preserved

by leaving a mound for cuts
(see Fig. 236); or, in the case
of fills by building a well around
the trunk to keep the soil from
the bark (see Fig. 237). Trees
injured as a result of removing
soil from the base, die because
the roots dry out; while those
injured from fills die because the
soil packed around the tnmk
suffocates that part of the tree,
kills the small feed roots, and
rots the bark. A few of the
very hardy species of trees will
survive such conditions of fill,
while others are very susceptible
to its ill effects.

The courts now recognize the
fact that the loss of these trees
affects the money valuation of
abutting property. While a
money remuneration is of little
or no satisfaction for a property
owner or a commission to receive from a tree destroyer, it seems to
be the only means at present of checking the difficulty.

Fig. 234. — .4 common practice of pruning
trees. These long stubs work serious injury
to the tree because of their decay.

(4.) Wind and ice storms.

The normal damage to trees through wind and ice storms is due
very largely to the improper selection of species. Trees that suffer
most from this cause are those with brittle wood, such as white
willow and silver maple. The pyramidal trees and also those with
excurrent habits of growth, as the gingko and the sweet gum, suffer
least, while the broad-headed, vase-formed trees are often seriously

Street Trees.

317

injured. In localities where severe wind storms are prevalent, the
evergreens suffer quite as much as the deciduous trees, because the
resisting surface is greater at that season of the year when such storms
do the most damage. Along the seashore, most of the trees are deformed
and usually lean in the direction opposite to that from which the pre-
vailing winds come. Protection can be given best only by a correct
selection of deciduous
trees, and by keeping
from conifers the heavy
loads of snow which break
the branches during the
winter. In many city
parkS; and along avenues
that are Hned with very
large and old tall-growing
trees, it is the custom to
cut oft" a part of the tops,
thereby lessening the dan-
ger both to the tree and
to the public. There is
seldom any justification
for this, and until such
time as the parts of a
tree are knovrn to be dan-
gerous, they should not
be cut. Keeping a tree
free from dead wood will
nearly always overcome
this danger.

(5.) Freezing.

Winter-killincr of trees ^^'^- 235. — A unique method of preserving an old
. ,1 rr . c c (^^d valuable specimen of willow.

from the effects 01 ireez-

ing, and the splitting of the tininks from the same cause, form the basis
for many inquiries on the care of trees. The greatest danger from
freezing lies not in the fact that many trees in a normal condition of
growth are killed back, but rather that improper pruning and unpro-
tected wounds cause cavities to appear on the trunk and larger
branches; these fill with water during the summer months, and during
the winter months the ice formed in them splits seams up and down
these parts of a tree (see Fig. 238). These seams or cracks, small at

3i8

Bulletin 256.

first, close during the first summer, but during the succeeding winter are
again subjected to freezing processes, which open permanent cracks
that continue to increase in size from year to year, and to give free
access to the many disintegrating processes of nature. The only pro-

FiG. 236. — A method of saving valuable trees along streets on which heavy lowering

of the grade is being made.

tection for such a tree is to employ someone, who is fully informed on

the methods of tree surgery, to seal the cavity and thus prevent further

decay or freezing.

In selecting a species for planting in any particular region, it is best

not to accept the advice of a journeyman nurseryman, but rather to

is acquainted with
ditions of the re-
knows the degree
a species should
successfully.
and large branches
protected during
months. In a frozen
ticity of the wood
diminished and
broken very easily.

seek someone who
the climatic con-
gion, and who
of hardiness that
possess to be grown
Young saplings
should be specially
the very cold
condition the elas-
is very much
branches may be

Fig. 237. — The danger of injuring
trees by f-lling around the base m.ay
be avoided by the formation of a
"well"

(6.) Bites of horses, and grazing of wagon wheels.

Biting and gnawing of the bark by horses, and the grazing of the bark
from the careless driving of vehicles, are other sources of injury, and

Street Trees.

319

many times these injuries cannot be out-
grown. In some cities, ordinances provide
penalties for the hitching of horses to trees on
the highway, and such ordinances should be
enforced. When teamsters are heavily fined
for committing such trespasses on shade trees,
they will use sufficient care to lessen the num-
ber of injuries. In one town, the police ar-
rested and caused to be fined some two hun-
dred offenders for tying horses to trees, before
drivers became aware of the fact that the
laws could be enforced. Each community
must expect a certain amount of accidental
injury from this source; but no community
should permit the custom to prevail of making
a hitching post of a tree standing in front of
a residence.

Trees that show injury from the above
causes, and especially those that have
areas of the trunk devoid of bark, should be
given attention without delay (see Fig. 240),
the ragged edges of the bark being cut to
a smooth edge and the entire area covered
with paint or tar to protect the wood during
the process of healing. Trees in a condition
similar to that shown in Fig. 239, should
be removed, as it is impossible to save or
restore them.

(7.) Starving of root systems.

The root systems of trees may be starved
in two ways: first, by being confined in a ster-
ile clay soil, and second, by receiving too large
or too small water supply.

The trees on city streets suffer most often
because of a naturally poor soil and a lack of
sufficient water supply. City streets that are
macadamized, paved, or concreted, present a
surface layer that shuts off almost completely
the natural means by which water may reach
the roots, and directs all of the surface drain-
age into catch-basins and sewers. Thus, trees
on such streets are subjected to the extreme of
adverse conditions, and their natural vitality
and soil adaptation must be such that they
can withstand the abnormal strain on their

Fig. 238. — The preservation
by means of cement filling
of a tree whose trunk has
been split from the effects
of freezing.

320

Bulletin 256.

vitality or they are certain to meet with an unnatural and premature
death. Only a very small percentage of the trees used for city work

^^^^^^ are of the species best adapted to withstand the

V &W^M conditions.

A scarcity of water from the surface, together with
an abundant supply from the subsoil, fosters the
production of deep-seated roots, which are one of
the most valuable assets of a good shade tree. On
the other hand, a thoroughly water-clogged soil ad-
mits no air circulation, and increases the tendency
to the development of surface roots, which are
killed during periods of drought; it also provides
avenues for root diseases, and finally leads to the
death of the tree. Poor soils bring about the con-
dition often known as "stag-head," the symptoms
of which are a stunted and sickly appearance of the
tree, the presence of slender and weak branches,
and a sparsely scattered yellow foliage. The remedy
for such a condition depends on its stage of devel-
opment when detected. In its early
stages, the tree may be rejuvenated
by digging out a quantity of the
Fig. 2sg.— Injuries P°°^ soil and replacing with good

resulting from the loam; if the specimen shows too

gnawing of horses ,^^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^^ weakness, it had

during the early li}e ° , ° .

of a tree. better be substituted by a younger,

vigorous specimen. The Shade Tree
Commissioners of Newark, N. J., by means of a small
leaflet that they distribute to all prospective tree plant-
ers of the city, have accomplished results in partially
guarding against the starvation of root systems (see
Fig. 241). They require that all holes for newly planted
trees shall be of a certain size and filled with good loam
in which the roots can feed, and also that a certain open
space shall be left around the base of each tree for the
entrance of water to the roots. This space is often four
feet square, or sometimes rectangular, the long side of
the rectangle being parallel to the sidewalk line. Through
these open spaces the trees are watered and fertilized
when necessary. To prevent the trampling of the earth about the base
of the tree, the open space is almost always covered with a movable
iron grating (see Fig. 242).

Fig. 240. — Shozu-
ing the method of
preserving a tree
that has been ser-
iously injured by
horse bites.

Street Trees.

321

SHADE TREE COMMISSION

OF NEWARK— NEW JERSEY

SPECIFICATIONS ADOPTED FOR THE SELECTION OF TREES

TREES WHICH DIE
ARE REPLACED
WITHOUT CHARGE

WELL DEVELOPED
MEADS AND GOOD
LEADERS

MEAD TO BEGIN NOT
LESS THAN SEVEN NOR
MORE THAN EIGHT
FEET ABOVE GROUND

OUR TREES ARE PRUN-
ED SPRAYED AND FED
REGULARLY BY TRAIN-
ED HORTICULTURISTS

PRE-
VENT CHAfINQ

SELECT VARIETIES
WHICH THRIVE IN
NEV»rARK.CONSULT
THE SHADE TREE
OFFICE FOR ADVICE

TREES WITH STRAIGHT
TRUNKS- ANNUALLY
TRANSPLANTED, FREE
FROM DISEASES 0F«
INJURIOUS INSECTS

GALVANIZED W Rt
GUARD SIX FEET
MIOHHALF INCH MESH

CHESTNUT STAKE Tf,
INCHES IN DPAMETfrt
8 FEET LONG

IN THIS WAY WE
FINISH THE CUT IN
CEMENT SIDEWALKS

PIT FOR POPLARS
27 CUBIC FEET

PIT OF 56 CUBIC FEET
(5600P0UND5)REPLACED
WITH TOPSOIL OR QT»t-'
ERWISE ENRICHttt

TREES ARE NOT NATIVES OF THE CITY — THIS SUBSOIL-
INQ IS NECESSARY TO HELP THEM LIVE UNDER ARTIFICIAL

CONDITIONS

Fig. 241. A circular {here somewhat reduced) distributed by a shade tree commission.
The distribution of a leaflet similar to the above has been useful.
II

322

Bulletin 256.

(8.) Smoke and gas from factories.

The presence of smoke and atmospheric gases often causes the
death or the stunted condition of trees in the streets and parks

of our cities. The functions of
the leaves are retarded in two
ways: first, the breathing-pores
or stomata become choked with
the soot ; and second, many-
gases in themselves may be
poisonous, even when diluted
with the atmosphere.

The list of trees that are more
or less immune to the effects of

Fig. 242. — A grating generally covers the
"well," and also prevents the area around
the base of city street trees from becoming
impenetrable to surface water.

smoke and gas is very small, and therefore the range of selection is

narrow. Trees should be selected on the basis of results secured with

similar species in other cities and towns under similar conditions. The

presence of injurious elements often depends on the

direction of the prevailing winds. Trees in and around

Liverpool show the damaging influences of gases

which are carried a distance of fifteen to twenty

miles by the prevailing north-west winds. On the

other hand, in the vicinity of London these injuries

are not so marked. Corporations having factory

interests should be urged to control the production of

gases, and the municipal authorities in such places

should permit no trees to be planted that are not

known to be capable of withstanding a certain amount

of poisonous vapors and choking of the stomata.

(p.) Overcrowding and improper placing.

Two kinds of injury result from overcrowding and
improper placing of street trees, — the presence of large
quantities of dead wood, and the presence of de-
formed and sickly specimens. The evil begins with
the improper spacing of the young trees when first
planted, and it continues to increase in proportion to
the length of time during which such trees are per-
mitted to remain. The greatest evil attending the
close planting of young trees in avenues is the neces-
sity of their removal at a subsequent date, when only a person possessing
the courage of his convictions will take out the trees that should be

Fig. 243. — Bridge-
grafting, for the
pr e s er vation
of girdled trees.

Street Trees. 323

sacrificed. Citizens who value their. trees highly and yet strongly oppose
the removal of a few specimens for the good of those remaining, seldom
realize the extent of their error. Mere cutting out may not restore the
injured trees, if the work is not performed very early in the life of the trees.
Every town and city possesses trees that are suffering from this
evil of overcrowding. Each community should designate some intelli-
gent person to direct the work of caring for the pruning of such trees,
and who, despite false sentiment, will accomplish the work.

(10.) Injury from wire labels.

This injury occurs in young trees which have been labeled in the
nursery row and planted in the permanent places without the removal
of the labels. The girdling of a tree, whether it be large or small, does
not necessarily mean its subsequent death, because some trees more or
less outgrow the injury and many have been saved by bridge-grafting
the wounded part. This is done by trimming smooth the edges of the
girdled part and inserting cions of the same species under the bark in such
a way that the wound is bridged over. (Fig. 243.) These cions, being
placed very close together around the stem, become united at the ends
with the old trunk and serve to conduct the elaborated food material
down to the lower parts of the tree. During- the period of uniting, the
cions are covered with grafting wax much as is an ordinary graft, and
no shoots developing from buds on the cions are permitted to grow.
In time, as the tree develops, the wounded part is entirely healed.

II. Protection and Pruning of Street Trees. (Pages 323-337)
A. Methods of protecting trees.

Street trees require protection from many contingencies. The three
most common sources of injury against which trees must be mechan-
ically protected are, the careless breaking down of young saplings, the
abrasions of the trunk caused by wagon wheels, and the drying out of
the roots because of lack of water supply. The methods for protection
against the many general sources of injury have been outlined, and it
is only the protection from these more important injuries which need
to be discussed further.

(i). Protection for young or transplanted trees. The greatest menaces
to the normal development of a young sapling, planted on the highway,
are reckless driving and the tying of horses to the tree. As a preventive
against the first, all young trees in dangerous positions should be pro-
vided with supports to keep them erect and to protect them against

324

Bui-LETTN 256.

r

being broken because of bending. The support frequently used for this
purpose is a straight, stout pole made from some hard wood. This
should be placed firmly in the ground at the base of the tree when the
tree is planted, and on the side in line with the row of trees so that it
will be least conspicuous; it should be sunk to such a
depth in the ground that when the young tree is firmly
attached to it by leather (Fig. 244), w4re or rope bands,
which are kept from t':e tree by means of a padding of
cloth, wool, or any soft material that will protect the
tree from injury by binding, it will not be easily blown
over or broken by bending. Another method, illustrated
in Fig. 245, while more expensive, aftords a more secure
protection for the young tree. Trees require to be thus
protected during a period of three or four years after
planting, the length of this period depending on the size
of the trees when planted. In general, they cease to
need this protection when the trunk has attained such
a diameter that only a severe strain would break it.

Young trees, however, are not the only ones requiring
support. Older trees, which have been newly transplanted
in order to replace dead specimens or to secure an effect
quickly, must be protected against wind storms espec-
ially, otherwise they may be uprooted. Such protection
is afforded by means of three or four guy -wires that may
be attached to the upper part of the trunk. Care should
be exercised in such work to guard against injury at the
point where the wires are attached.

(2). Protection against horses and wagons. The injur}'

i^i>
W

n

Iv^'

Fig. 244. —
Young trees

must be pro- to trunks of street trees from horse bites and wagon-wheel

soft ^paddins. ^^^jrasions is so serious that some means of protection is

under the demanded. Old trees should receive this necessary pro-

^°'*l'^f w/ijZ^ tection through the enforcement of state laws (p. 464).

Young trees, while they may be partially protected in the

way previously cited, are more susceptible to this kind of injury, and

the injury has greater relative importance in the development of the

specimen than would the same wound on a larger tree. With the

large number of styles of tree guards now on the market at reasonable

prices, there seems to be little excuse for this injury from horses'

teeth. Guards may be had at prices ranging from forty or fifty cents

up to two or three dollars each. Home-made guards, which are

efficient, may be used in countr}' districts; these may be a jacket of

Street Trees.

325

poles, or may be made in the form of a crate. The objection is that
they are Ukely to be unsightly and clumsy. Guards of wire netting
are less clumsy and equally as effective as pro-
tection against horses, and are commonly used.

The most economical and best guards may be
purchased ready made, from a number of firms.
These guards should be removed as soon as the
trees attain the size when binding is likely to
take place. Such binding is likely to force the
upper part of the trunk to grow out over the top
of the guard and so lessen the strength of the
tree, if not completely to girdle it.

Large trees on the corners of streets where
the w^heels of passing vehicles may injure them,
may be protected by planting a block of stone
in front of the tree at an oblique angle, sloping
away from the road.

(3). Protection against drought. The chief use
of grills has been outlined in the discussion of
the starving of roots (page 465). Most of the
grills on the market are circular or hexagonal in
form and are provided w4th a circular opening in
the center which is approximately adapted to the
size of the trunks of the trees around which they
are to be used. They are made in sections, and
are supported on wooden pegs driven firmly in
the ground. As a means of securing the desired
open spaces around the trees and at the same
time not interfering w'ith the traffic, there is
nothing better. Their use in cities offers almost
the only method of protecting trees against the
dangers from paved streets.

(4). Protection against winter-killing. The nec-
essity of affording winter protection for many
species of ornamental trees and shrubs is great.
However, while protection is sometimes given to
certain species of young shade trees, it is not a
profitable practice for two reasons. First, because

a species of shade tree should be chosen that is perfectly able
to withstand the normal climatic conditions of the locality. Second,
because any such tree which winter-kills back each year will naturally

I

8fe^^:P5

Fig. 245. — An excellent
method of staking and
protecting newly plant-
ed trees.

326 Bulletin 256.

require a greater or less amount of pruning to retain it in a normal
condition, and it can never develop to its maximum beauty and size;
therefore it should be replaced by a more hardy species which will not
require so much care and protection. (See page 463.)

B. Pruning of street trees, and tree surgery.

The presence on street trees of ngly wounds, large cavities, and
the projecting stubs of dead branches, are indications that such trees
have been grossly neglected or carelessly treated. Improper treatment
is so common that losses through the neglect of pruning or the practice
of incorrect methods assume enormous proportions.

The amount of pruning that is necessary to preserve a tree in its best
condition varies greatly with the species and type of the tree. It is
quite as easy to prune a tree too often and too much, as to prune not
enough. In general, trees along highways require very little attention;
but what attention is needed must be given at the proper time and in
an intelligent way. Pruning may be undertaken for the follow-
ing purposes:

(i). To remove dead wood and injured branches.
(2). To secure a stronger and more vigorous growth.
(3). To open up the head of the tree and to reduce competition
among the branches.

(4). To adapt the species to street purposes as shade trees.
(5). To control the production of flowers.

(i). Removal of dead wood and injured branches. Old trees, crowded
trees, and those that have been subjected to the detrimental influences
of gas and overhead wires, require a certain amount of pruning to pre-
serve them in a normal condition. In such cases, the practice should
be to remove each year dead or dying branches, and to cut back below
the point of injury those branches that have been injured in any way.
Trees that have developed the condition known as "stag-head," which
is evidenced by a dying out of the top, should have the dead parts re-
moved and the other parts cut back slightly to conform to the shape
of the tree.

(2). To secure stronger and more vigorous growth. The significance
of this operation is explained by saying that if we remove a part of a tree,
the food supply which would have gone to that part is distributed through-
out the remaining parts of the tree, and in consequence these parts
make a more vigorous growth. While this is a common practice among
trained tree pruners for rejuvenating old and weak specimens, and to

Street Trees.

327

establish transplanted specimens, yet its successful application under
different conditions requires years of experience. Trees that have been
root-starved or suffocated with gas are often preserved by this practice.

(3). To open up the head of the tree. It frequently happens that trees
become crowded and cannot attain their normal and best development
without being subjected to a thinning process. As a rule, street trees
should be adapted to specimen planting, and the full development of
such trees cannot be expected under crowded conditions. The interior
of the trees should have free light and air. Competition for light
among the branches can be reduced greatly by removing those
w^hich in the course of time must be crowded out and suffocated.
Trees that are suft'ering from overcrowding of branches should be
intelligently thinned out, in order that the branches that remain may
develop a greater leaf surface.

(4). To adapt the species to street purposes as shade trees. It is seldom
necessar}' to prune certain species of trees to adapt them to street plant-
ings. Trees should not be chosen that must be pruned continually
in order to make them desirable. Occasionally one may find an ave-
nue of trees that are not adapted to their situation. In such in-
stances, rather than cut the trees down, the avenue may be made
attractive by judicious pruning, as by removing or shortening in some
of the branches, or removing such lower branches as may interfere
with traffic. Occasional^, because of the breaking of a branch during
a storm, it becomes necessary to develop a branch to fill the gap and
restore the symmetry of the tree. This is done by selecting a branch
and cutting it back to a branchlet that points in the direction of the
gap, and then encouraging the development of this branchlet.

(5). To control the production of flowers. Street trees are not valuable
primarily because of their flowering habits, and frequently it happens
that trees are objectionable because of this feature, since the presence
of showy flowers subjects them to much damage from marauding persons.
This is especially true of the tulip tree, flowering dog^vood, horse-
chestnut and magnoHa. Such trees as flowering dog^\'ood and some of
the magnolias, w^hich flower early in the spring and on wood formed
■the year before, require pruning after the trees are done flowering each
year. Pruning previous to the time of flowering removes a number
of flower-buds already formed, whereas pruning immediately after
flowering serves to encourage the growth of new branchlets on which
will be formed more flowxr buds for the succeeding year. Pruning to
control the production of flowers is practiced more extensively with
shrubs than with trees.

328

Bulletin" 2^6.

The amount of pruning required by trees on city streets and country
highways is comparatively small. Pruning is necessary^ however, in

veiy young trees that are establishing their form, and
in old specimens that must be rejuvenated by arti-
ficial means. Young trees are usually vigorous and
rapid growers, and the least influence may produce a
strong or weak growth which may greatly affect the
form of the mature tree. Especial care is necessary
in the case of specimens collected from the woods,
and of nursery stock which has not been trained cor-
rectly. The main attention required by young trees
is to remove crowding branchlets, to cut back over-
vigorous growths, and to en-
courage an upright growing
shoot called a leader, all of
enhance the natural beauty

Fig. 246. — The in-
correct way in
which to remove
large branches.

Fig. 248. — A "monument
to the memory of the
pr liner," and a common
disfiguration on onr
shade trees.

which aims to

of the specimen.

Young elms perhaps require as much pruning

as do any other species of street trees. Uni-
formly developed specimens of these trees may

be selected from the nursery, and yet when

transplanted in an avenue they will soon show

their characteristic uneven development in both

form and size. They should be so trained that

the broad and strong forks will be developed in

preference to the narrow
and weak ones, in order
to avoid the liability to subsequent splitting.

Season for pruning. The correct season to prune
trees cannot always be definitely set. The time for
pruning street trees may cover a wider range than
does that for pruning certain ornamental trees and
shrubs in which the season for producing flowers
must be considered. The difference lies in the differ-
ences in the purposes for which the pruning is done.
While pruning may be performed at almost any
season of the year, yet pruning in the summer
months is attended with numerous difficulties. The
most advantageous seasons for this work are in the

early spring, previous to the beginning of the growing period, and the

late summer or autumn. Of these two, the time between late February

Fig. 247. — The cor-
rect way in which
to saw a limb to
prevent splitting.

Street Trees.

329

reel fnethod of
making a cut.

and early April is preferable. An exception to this, however, occurs
in the case of maples. These trees bleed very freely when cut in
early spring, and professional pruners have found
that the best season for pruning them is during
the summer months. This loss of sap is not recog-
nized as being injurious to the tree; but the wounded
surfaces may be protected more easily in summer
pruning.

In choosing the season for pruning trees, it must
be kept in mind that the healing of the wounds de-
pends on the growth of the cambium. We see, there-
fore, that in very dry and severe climates, the exposed
freshly cut and unprotected tissue may be killed back
during the winter months. On the other hand,
wounds made just previous to the growing season and F'g. 249. — Thecor-
which are adequately protected, will become partially
or wholly covered by the new layers from the cam-
bium during the same spring, and in a short time the cut will be com-
pletely healed over. It is unreasonable to expect a large wound to heal
in a single season; but the ordinary wound on a tree which has been
pruned judiciously since planting, will be healed in a single season suffi-
ciently well to warrant its being left unprotected artificially thereafter.

Making the cut. This operation more often than
any other, has resulted in fatal injury to the tree.
Authorities agree that most of the injuries to shade
trees from fungi may be traced directly to poor prun-
ing and mechanical injuries, and they have shown
that there are various wound fungi that develop
only as a result of poor pruning. Incorrect methods
of antiseptic protection have also aided in bringing
about the evil results.

Removing large branches may be attended by in-
injury to the tree by breaking and tearing strips of
Fig. 250. — Insuffi- bark and wood from the trunk below their points
'l7cLtaTwea- ^^ attachment (see Fig. 246). To avoid this,twocuts
thering leave an are made, first one on the under side of the branch,
otherwise clean about one foot from the main trunk, and the other
cay. ° ^'^ "^^ upper side of the branch (Fig. 247), thus re-

moving all but a stub extending out from the trunk.
The stub is then removed by first making a slight cut on the under side
to insure against any possible splitting of the wood, and then cutting

330

Bulletin 256.

from the upper side, care being taken to see that the second cut
is made flush with the bark of the trunk (Fig, 249). The heaUng
process is greatly impeded by any ragged edges left by splitting or
careless sawing.

An equally important factor is that the pruner should leave no
part of a cut or dead branch on the trunk. Old wood cells possess
no life, and hence, when a branch is severed, if it be of any size, the
exposed wood of the inner area can never heal through any growth
of itself. It must depend for its ultimate protection on the cambium,

which, supplied with food from the roots and
leaves, grows and expands at the point where
the cut is made, and the new tissue rolls out
over the wounded surface and in time entirely
protects it. To get the best results, this wound-
ed area must be in close proximity to the
path of the food supply.

Stubs soon dry out at the ends, the bark
loosens (Fig. 248), rolls back and falls off , leav-
ing the dead stub which finally rots back to the
main trunk and forms the beginning of a cavity.
This cavity, very small at first, collects water
in larger quantities each succeeding season until
finally the entire interior of the tree is rotted.

All cuts should leave the wounded surface flush
with the plane of the bark on the parent branch
(Fig. 249). No ragged edges should be left on
the wood, and no part of the stub should pro-
ject beyond the surrounding cambium. The
cut surface should never be made with an axe
or a hatchet. Cuts can best be made with the

Fig. 251. — A noble speci-
men of white oak fast out-
growing its period of use
fulness. Such trees might

easily be preserved by

the simplest methods of aid of a sharp saw, and a chisel with which to

careful tree surgery

smooth the surface, special precautions being

taken to avoid any irregularity on the wounded surface in which
water may collect.

The work of pruning a large tree should begin at the top and be con-
tinued as the pruner descends. In this way the operator is less likely
to overlook any branches that may be broken by the falling of branches
from above. The pruner should be careful not to break or bruise
healthy branches.

Protecting 7couiicls. It has been pointed out that the natural healing
of a wound is the result of the growing tissue, and that in large

Street Trees.

331

cuts the period of healing ma}'' occupy two, three or more years (see
Fig. 250). During this heahng period protection must be given to the
surface to keep out all moisture and prevent evaporation and subse-
quent dr\dng of the' dead inner -wood. If this is not done, the spores
of fungi enter and help to decay the exposed area.

Protection is necessary on all large wounds (more than lY' in diameter),
and on all smaller wounds that are the result of fall and early winter
pruning. As soon as the wounds are made, some substance should be
applied to the surface which will serve as an antiseptic and also as a
preventive against evaporation and water. Bordeaux mixture may be
applied as an antiseptic, if desired; but it is not permanent as a covering
against evaporation. Tar
and lead paint are the best
mixtures for this work,
the latter being preferred
by the majority of pro-
fessional pruners. Dress-
ings used on fresh wounds
of pruned trees should in
all cases be preservative
and preventive, and in no
case should they be such as
might injure the tissues.

Protective substances
are applied in a thick
layer, and one covering
is generally sufficient for
small wounds; for large
wounds a second coat is
put on during the second

or third year, and if several years are required for the healing, the
surface should receive attention each year in order to avoid any
chance of decay. A common practice is to cover ver)^ large wounds
with dressing, and over the whole place a covering of tar paper which
will ser\^e to increase the efficiency of the dressing. Tar is not much
in favor as a dressing among professional operators as compared with
white lead, which is more permanent and less repulsive to the eye.
However, tar possesses the advantage that, when applied hot, it strikes
into the wood, thus making it a most desirable dressing to be used on
the wounds of maple trees during the spring months when paint will
not adhere.

Fig. 252.

-A well filled cavity preserves the tree
against further decay.

332

Bulletin 256.

Tree surgery. Systematic pruning and tree surgery are very closely
related. Tree surgery includes the intelligent protection of all me-
chanical injuries and cavities. Pruning requires a previous intimate
knowledge of the habits of growth of trees; surgery, on the other hand,
requires in addition a knowledge of the best methods for making cavi-
ties air-tight and preventing decay (Fig. 252). The filling of cavities in

trees has not been practiced sufficiently
long to warrant making a definite state-
ment as to the permanent success or failure
of the operation; the work is still in an
experimental stage. The caring for cavi-
ties in trees must be urged as the only
means of preserving affected specimens,
and the preservation of many noble speci-
mens has been at least temporarily assured
through the efforts of those practicing this
kind of work.

Successful operation depends on two im-
portant factors: first, that all decayed parts
of the cavity be wholly removed and the
exposed surface thoroughly washed with
an antiseptic; second, that the cavity, when
filled, must be air-tight and hermetically
sealed, if possible. Trees are treated as fol-
lows: The cavity is thoroughly cleaned by
removing all decayed wood and washing
the interior surface with a solution of cop-
per sulfate and lime, in order to destroy
any fungi that may remain. The edges of

the cavitv are cut smooth in order to allow
Fig. 2=5?. — ,4 cavity in the pro- . \-u £ j-i. t,- r^ ^1

cess of being^ filled; rubble ma- free growth of the cambium after the cav-

sonry or brick being used for ity is filled (see Fig. 253). Any antiseptic,

the outer wall of the concrete g^^j^ ^5 corrosive sublimate, creosote, or

filling. .

even pamt, may answer the purpose; creo-
sote,, however, possesses the most penetrating powers of any. The
method of filling the cavities depends to a great extent on their size
and form. Very large cavities with great openings, are generally
bricked on the outside, over the opening, and filled on the inside
with concrete, the brick serving the purpose of a retaining wall
to hold the concrete in place. Concrete used for the main filling
is usually made in the proportion of one part good portland

Street Trees.

333

cement, two parts sand, and four parts crushed stone, the consistency
of the mixture being such that it may be poured into the cavity and
require httle or no tamping to make the mass soHd. FilHngs thus
made are considered by expert tree surgeons to be a permanent pre-
ventive of decay. The
outside of the filhng
is always coated with
a thin covering of con-
crete, consisting of one
part cement to two
parts fine sand. Cavi-
ties resulting from
freezing, and which,
though large on the
inside, show only a
long narrow crack on
the outside, are most
easily filled by placing
a form against the
entire length of the
opening, having a
space at the top
through which the ce-
ment may be poured.
Another method of
retaining the concrete
is to reinforce it from
the outside by driving
rows of spikes along
the inner surface of
either side of the cav-
ity and lacing a stout
wire across the face of
the cavity. For best
results, all fillings m.ust

come flush with the inner bark when finished. During the first
year, this growing tissue will spread over the outer edge of the filling,
thus forming an hermetically sealed cavity. In the course of time,
as the cambium continues to expand, the outside of small or narrow
openings should be completely covered with living tissue, which buries
the filling from view.

Fig. 254. — A large tree requiring immediate attention, if
the specimen is to be preserved.

334

Bulletin 256.

It has been found that there is a tendency for portland cement to
contract from the wood after it dries, leaving a space between the
wood and the cemen t through which water and germs of decay may
enter. A remedy for this defect has been suggested in the use of a thick

coat of tar, or an
elastic cement which
might be spread over
the surface of the
cavity before filling.
The cracking of port-
land cement on the
surface of long cavi-
ties, is caused by the
swaying of trees dur-
ing heavy storms,
and should not oc-
cur if the filling is
correctly done.

In addition to the
preservation of de-
cayed specimens by
filling the cavities,
as above outlined, it
has been proposed to
strengthen the tree
by treating it as
shown in Fig. 257.
Young saplings of
the same species,
after having become
established as shown,
are grafted by ap-
proach to the mature
specimen.

Bolting and chain-
ing trees. Injury frequently results from error in the method of at-
tempting to save broken, or to strengthen and support weak branches
which are otherwise healthy. The means used for supporting cracked,
wind-racked, and overladen branches which show a tendency to split
at the forks are bolting and chaining. The practice of placing iron
bands around large branches in order to protect them has resulted in

Fig. 255. — The same cavity {Fig. 254) in the early stages
of filling; bricks are used to retain the concrete.

Street Trees.

335

Fig. 256. — The same cavity {Fig. 2^§) completely filled
and finished; note the clean cut edges of the cavity.

336

Bulletin 256.

Fig. 257. — A method of re-establish-
ing a valtiabJe specimen — through
the grafting by approach of young
saplings of the same species.

much harm; as the tree grows and expands in diameter, such bands
tighten, causing the bark to be broken and resulting after a few years

in a partial girdling (Fig. 258).

To bolt a tree correctly is compara-
tively inexpensive. The safest method
consists in passing a strong bolt through
a hole bored in the branch for this
purpose, and fastening it on the out-
side by means of a washer and a nut.
Generally the washer has been placed
against the bark and the nut then
holds it in place. A better method of
bolting, and one which insures a neat
appearance of the
branch in addi-
tion to serving as
the most certain
safeguard against
the entrance of
disease, is to
countersink the
nut in the bark and imbed it in portland cement
(Fig. 259). The hole for the sinking of the nut
and washer is thickly coated with lead paint and
then with a layer of cement on which are placed
the nut and washer, both of which are then im-
bedded in cement. If the outer surface of the
nut be flush with the plane of the bark, within a few years it will be

covered by the growing tissue.

The inner ends of the rods in the two branches
may be connected by a rod or chain. The pref-

(^ C .!. fr " /f^ erence for the chain over the rod attachment
>— ''^ w/////y///7///'y^\ . , , , . , .,

is based on the compressive and tensile stresses

which come on the connection during wind
stonns. Rod connections arc preferred, however,
Fig. 259. — Care should when rigidity is required, as in unions made close
be e^^rcised in seeing ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^. ^^^^ branches to-
that the bolls are prop- ' - °

erly inserted. gether before they have shown signs of weak-

ening at the fork, the chain may best be used,
as the point of attachment may be placed some distance from the crotch,
where the flexiVnlity factor will be important and the strain comipara-

FiG. 258. — Undesirable
methods of bracing
shade trees.

Street Trees. 337

tively small. Elms in an advanced stage of maturity, if subjected to
severe climatic conditions, often show this tendency to split. These
trees, especially, should be carefully inspected and means taken to pre-
serve them, by bolting if necessary.

Ill MuNTciPAL Control of Street Trees. (Pages 337-343)

In the greater number of our larger cities and in a few of the smaller
ones, the care and preservation of the shade trees is, to a greater or less
degree, under the direct supervision of a commission specially appointed
for this purpose, or under the general supervision of the city park com-
mission. On the other hand, in towns and cities where no such methods
can be adopted, the control of the trees is vested in an official v/ho carries
the title of tree warden. The laws of New York provide for the
appointment of tree wardens in every community, and in many states
the laws now make provision for the appointment of shade tree com-
missions. The number of cities in which such commissions are appointed
is increasing each year. Theoretically, organizations similar in charac-
ter to park commissions and tree wardens, having the laws of the state
behind them, should prove efficient in controlling shade tree interests.
In practice the results have often been unsatisfactory. In the smaller
towns, the office of tree warden is unremunerative, and no incentive
is offered for a capable person to accept the responsibilities of the
positicn.

We must realize that the planting, subsequent care, and protection
of street trees should be under the direct control of the municipal govern-
ment to just as great a degree as the paving of a street or the re-
moval of garbage. One of the gravest mistakes is that of permitting
adjacent property owners to exercise their individual judgments in
the selection of stock with which it is proposed to plant the highway.
In many cases, property owners who may have become enthusiastic
through the inspiration of a local improvement society are often quite
ignorant of the relative merits of the species of trees and their adapta-
tion to any particular location. Therefore they admire the fine cuts to
be seen in the catalogues of nurserymen, and read the glowing descrip-
tions. Their neighbor does the same. The result is that the plantings
may be irregular, unattractive, and repulsive. In other cases, where a
number of individual property owners have worked in unison, they
have succeeded in establishing fine plantings of young trees full of
promise for future development. But under such a voluntary system,
trees are likely to be neglected, and replaced sooner or later. Further-

338 Bulletin 256.

more, it is a difficult task to obtain the concerted action of property
owners which is necessary to insure the planting of the entire length of
a street with uniform and properly selected stock of a desirable species.

To control the planting of street trees most economically and to
insure uniform material, each large city should have its own nursery in
which can be grown the species best adapted for its use. Nurseries
of this kind, supported from a municipal appropriation, are valuable
assets to the city, as has been proved by the experience of Washing-
ton, Paris, Philadelphia, and Chicago. Such nurseries may be made
to supply trees not only for street and avenue planting, but also
for city parks, squares and public gardens. Small cities and towns
cannot afford the expense of maintaining a nursery, and their only
resource lies in the judicious appointment of men to control the selection
of their shade trees. Such precautions will assure satisfactory results.

Each citizen should be as deeply interested in the ordinances that
control the shade-tree conditions in his community as in those that
regulate the street cars or the telephone lines. The laws which
already exist in certain states are sufficiently well framed so that most
of the injuries to trees in cities and rural districts might be checked,
were these laws strictly enforced. One criticism of many of these laws
is that they do not deal severely enough with the offenders. A number
of cities, mainly in the states of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, have
recently adopted special sets of city ordinances that place the control
of all the trees of the city under the jurisdiction of a special Shade Tree
Commission. The laws of these two states give the entire control into
the hands of the city authorities, and if these authorities feel disposed to
take such control, as evidenced by the appointing of these commissions,
then all offenders of the city ordinances are punished directly through
these commissions and their representatives. Such commissions have
full and undisputed power to plant, remove, spray, and prune any or all
of the trees within the boundaries of their jurisdiction. Special ordi-
nances, while not necessary in rural districts, are highly commendable;
they give to the municipal government a more personal control over the
work than would be given by the state laws alone. Such commissions
having been established, it then becomes the duty of the citizens annually
to make provision for the appropriation of sufficient funds to meet the
expenses of the commission.

Special ordinances are particularly adapted to city problems. For
the rural districts, however, the state laws would at the present time
be the means of preventing the wholesale butchery of our trees, were
they strictly enforced. Here is where the citizens fail to use the

Street Trees.

339

power at their command. Companies are permitted to slaughter
beautiful avenues of trees; and owing to lack of information regarding
the laws of the state, the adjacent property owners remonstrate with
the offenders and finally accept a paltry remuneration for the damage
done, or reluctantly accept their lot as one of the necessary misfortunes.
It is safe to say that the greater proportion of the citizens are ignorant of
the nature of these ordinances, all of which have been framed for their
good. We here mention a few salient features from some of the ordi-
nances of different states in order to indicate what has been done in
the interests of the people.

New York.

Penalties are prescribed for anyone who shall injure a tree, or
who shall hitch a horse or any other animal to a tree, or leave the same
standing near enough to injure a tree used for shade or ornament,
at "any school-house, church, or public building, or along any public
highway."

Massachusetts.

The state supreme court has rendered a decision that wire companies
have no right to trim trees without proper permission, and the park
authorities impose a fine of $20 for each offense.

Penalties provide that: Whoever injures, defaces, or destroys any
designated tree shall forfeit not less than five nor more than one hundred
dollars.

Whoever affixes to any tree in a public way or place, a play bill,
picture, announcement, notice, advertisement, or other thing, whether
written or otherwise, or cuts, paints, or marks such trees, except for the
purpose of protecting them, and then under a written permit from the
tree warden, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding $50 for each
offense.

Whoever wantonly injures, defaces, breaks, or destroys an ornamental
or shade tree within the limits of any public way or place, shall forfeit
not less than five nor more than one hundred dollars, to be recovered by
complaint, one-half to the complainant and the other half to the use of
the town.

New Hampshire.

Towns and cities shall control all of the shade and ornamental trees
within the public highways, which the warden deems reasonably neces-
sarv. Such trees shall be marked bv the warden.

340 Bulletin 256.

Penalties are imposed for cutting and defacing trees except with the
consent of the warden.

Provisions are made prohibiting owners of land from burning brush
near the trees.

Pennsylvania.

By means of a petition from a majority of the property owners on any
public street, the town council may require, by ordinance, the planting
of shade trees along that street; and on the failure of any owners to plant,
it may cause the planting to be done, and collect from the adjoining
property owners.

Any person who cuts or injures any shade tree or other tree shall pay
a penalty of one to five dollars for each offense; or he may plant and
maintain another tree in place of the one cut or injured.

New Jersey.

In all municipalities there may be appointed a Commission of three
freeholders, without compensation, who shall have control of trees and
power to plant and care for shade trees on any of the public highways.

Cost of planting, including guards around trees, to be borne by the
adjoining real estate. The same may be collected with the taxes. Cost
of maintaining to be borne by municipality.

The foregoing arc extracts from the ordinances of the states in which
this question is most important. They reveal the fact that the damage
now being done to shade trees, to a certain extent, can be effectivelv
controlled without the aid of special ordinances which invoke special
penalties. As one writer has said, "the absence of shade trees on many
of our streets and highways is not due to any lack of legislative provision
for their planting, care and maintenance ;" it is due to a lack of stimulation
of public interest and enthusiasm in this work.

The two foremost states in the Union in this work in all probability,
are Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and in these states the legislatures
have passed ordinances which provide for the care and planting of shade
trees on highways of townships of the first class, boroughs, and cities of
the commonwealths. The laws of New Jersey were passed in 1893, ^i^d
after lying dormant for a number of years were supplemented in 1905
and again twice supplemented in 1906; those of Pennsylvania were
passed and approved by the legislature in 1907. The following summary
of these state laws will illustrate ordinances which will insure careful
management of shade trees by empowering the Shade Tree Commission
if necessary to enforce additional ordinances which meet the require-
ments of their particular problems.

Street Trees,

341

Section i. Provides that in townships of the first class, and cities of the Com-
monwealth, there be appointed a commission of three freeholders, who shall serve
without compensation, and who shall have exclusive and absolute control of, and
power to plant, set out, remove, maintain, protect, and care for shade trees on any
of the public highways of their respective municipalities; the cost thereof to be
provided for in the manner hereinafter directed. Such commission to be known
and designated as the Shade Tree Commission,

Section 2. Provides that it shall be optional with the governing body of any
municipality whether this act shall have effect and such commissioners shall
be appointed in such municipality; and when any such governing body shall by
resolution formally approve of this act and direct that such commissioners shall
be appointed, then, from that time, this act and all of its provisions shall be in
force and apply to such municipality, and such commissioners shall be appointed
for terms of three, four and five years, respectively; and on the expiration of any
term, the new appointment shall be made for five years, and any vacancy shall be
filled for the unexpired term only; and in cities, the said appointments shall be
made by the Mayor thereof; in townships by the commissioners, or by the chair-
man of the township committee. In towns and cities where a commission already
exists, the term and appointment of such Commission shall not be changed by this
act. Such Shade Tree Commission shall twice in each year report in full its trans-
actions and expenditures for the municipal fiscal year last ended.

Section 3. Provides that when such commissions shall propose the setting out,
planting, and removing of any shade trees, or the material changing of the same
in any highway, they shall give public notice of the time and place appointed for
the meeting at which such contemplated work is to be considered, specifying in
detail the highways, or portions thereof, upon which trees are proposed to be
planted, removed, or changed, in one or more — not exceeding two in all — of the
newspapers published in said township or city, for at least two weeks prior to the
date of such meeting.

Section 4. Provides that the cost of planting, transplanting, or removing of
any shade trees in any highway, and of suitable curbing, guards or grating for the
protection thereof, when necessary, and of the proper replacing of any pavement
or sidewalk necessarily disturbed in the doing of such work, shall be borne by the
owner of the real estate in front of which such trees are planted, and such amounts
as may be assessed to the different owners shall become liens upon the real estate
in front of which such work has been done and shall be collectible in the same
manner as the liens for taxes are now collectible against the property involved.

Section 5 Provides that the cost and expense of caring for the trees after
having been planted and set out, and the expense of publishing the notices pro-
vided for in Section 3, shall be paid for by a general tax, to be levied annually in
the manner that taxes for the township, borough and city purposes are now levied,
such tax not to exceed the sum of one-tenth of one mill on the dollar on the assessed
valuation of the property. The needed amount each year shall be certified by the
Shade Tree Commission to the proper authorities charged with the assessment of
taxes in said township, etc,, and paid in the same manner as other taxes are paid.

Section 6. Provides that the Shade Tree Commission shall have power to em-
ploy and pay superintendents, engineers, tree wardens, foresters, and other assist-
ants as its proper performance of duties shall require; and to make, publish, and

342 Bulletin 256.

enforce regulations for the care of, and to prevent injury to, the trees on the high-
ways; and to assess suitable fines and penalties for the violations of these ordinances,
and such fines and penalties shall become liens upon the real property of the
offender.

Section 7. Provides that all moneys due and collected from liens or penalties
or assessments shall be paid to the treasurers of the townships, boroughs, and
cities, and shall be placed to the credit of said Commission, subject to be drawn
upon by the said Commission for the purposes of this act.

The foregoing are summaries of sections which are included in the
acts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and which give to the governing
bodies of the towns, boroughs, and cities in these states certain powers
that if supplemented by sets of special city ordinances will enable the
citizens completely to protect the shade trees. The, following is an
outline of such a set of ordinances relating to the protection, regulation
and control of shade trees and city parks. Such ordinances have been
successfully adopted by the Shade Tree Commissions of Newark, N. J.,
East Orange, N. J., and Cleveland, O.

Section i. Provides that no person shall, without the written permit of the
Shade Tree Commission, cut, break, climb with spikes, injure, or remove any
living tree in a public highway, or any tree or plant in a city park; or injure, misuse,
or remove any device placed to protect such tree or plant, or have possession of
any such structure or part thereof.

Section 2. Provides that no person shall leave any paper or other waste material
in a city park, except in receptacles which may be provided therein for such
material.

Section 3. Provides that no person shall enter upon any portion of lawn or
ground within a city park when notified by a sign placed in such park, or by a
guardian of such park, or by a police officer, not to enter upon such lawn or ground.

Section 4. Provides that no person above the age of fourteen years shall,
except at such places and under such regulations as may be designated by the
Shade Tree Commission, i>lay at any game in a city park.

Section 5. Provides that no person shall, without the written permit of the
Shade Tree Commission, place any booth, stand, or other structure, or station
any wagon or other vehicle in a city park.

Section 6. Provides that no person shall offer any article for sale, display any
advertising device, or distribute any circulars or cards in a city park.

Section 7. Provides that no person shall fasten a horse or other animal to a
tree in a public highway, or in a city park, nor cause a horse or other animal, to
stand so that said horse or animal can injure such a tree.

Section 8. Provides that no person shall, without a written permit from the
Shade Tree Commission, attach or keep attached to a tree in a highway or park,
or to the guard or stake intended for the protection of such tree, a rope, wire, sign
or any device.

Section 9. Provides that no person shall, without the written permit of the
Commission, place, or hereafter maintain, upon the ground in a highway or city

Street Trees. 343

park, stone, cement, or other substance which shall impede the free entrance of
water and air to the roots of any tree in such highway or park, without leaving an
open space of ground outside the trunk of said tree, in area not less than four
square feet.

Section 10. Provides that in the erection or repair of a building or structure,
the owner thereof shall place such guards around all nearby trees on the highway
as shall effectually prevent injury to them.

Section 1 1 . Provides that every person or corporation having any wires charged
with electricity running through a public highway or park shall securely fasten or
protect such wires so that they will not come in contact with any tree therein.
(An improvement on this section would be the addition of a supplementary clause,
providing that on certain highways the companies controlling such wires should be
required to place them in an underground conduit.)

Section 12. Provides that no person or corporation shall prevent, delay, or
interfere with the Shade Tree Commission or its employees in the planting, prun-
ing, spraying, or removing of a tree in a public highway or a park, or in the removal
of stone, cement, or other substance about the base of the tree.

Section 13. Provides that no person shall plant any tree in any highway with-
out first having obtained the permission of the Shade Tree Commission in writing,
showing the variety, size and location of such tree.

Section 14. Provides that no person shall pour salt water or any injurious
chemical upon a public highway in such a manner as to injure any tree planted or
growing thereon.

Section 15. Provides that every person or corporation having any wire charged
with electricity running through a public highway, shall temporarily remove such
wire or the electricity therefrom when it shall be necessary, in order to take down
or prune any trees growing in such highway, within twenty-four hours after the
service upon the owner of said wire, or his agent, of a written notice, signed by two
members of the Shade Tree Commission, or its secretary, upon the order of such
Commission.

Section 16. Provides that every violation by the same person or corporation
of any provision of this ordinance or the continuation of the violation of any of its
provisions on any day or days succeeding the first violation thereof, shall constitute
an additional violation for each of such succeeding days.

Section 17. Provides that any person or corporation violating any of the pro-
visions of this ordinance shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished as follows:
For a first offense such party shall forfeit and pay a fine of not more than fifty
dollars; for a second or any subsequent offense, a fine of not more than one hundred
dollars, or imprisonment not exceeding sixty days, or both the fine and imprison-
ment.

344 Bulletin 256.

IV. Summary.

This discussion has attempted to point out that the deplorable con-
dition of shade trees, in general, is not due wholly to the lack of sufficiently
strict laws, but rather to the inadequate knowledge of these laws and the
lack of initiative in enforcing them. There is need of one or two
public spirited citizens in each community to awaken enthusiasm and
keep it alive until results are accomplished. Communities may possess
sufficient interest to aid them in securing appropriations to be used in
the construction of a road, which for a number of years may be more
or less a luxury. But the same interest is seldom shown in enhancing
the value of real estate and protecting human life by spending a few
dollars in caring for the shade trees. The highway improvement, as
the macadamizing of a road or the building of a curb in front of a piece
of property, adds value to the property, costs much to keep in repair,
and decreases in value each year. On the other hand, shade trees cost
comparatively little to establish and become more valuable each year,
until in the course of fifty years each tree may be worth two hundred to
three hundred dollars. They are invaluable as a setting for an other-
wise uninteresting section of roadway.

The air in which city trees live is polluted with dust and smoke,
together with gases which impair the healthy action of the leaves;
the soil in which they are made to grow is often sterile and commonly
covered with a pavement which keeps a great amount of moisture from
the roots. These injurious conditions are magnified by the presence of
sewers which drain the soil water away as quickly as possible, leaving a
most arid condition for the feeding roots. In rural districts, street
trees are also likely to be neglected.

The salient points in the preceding pages, and the ones which, if used
as a basis for action should insure a better condition of shade trees,
are the following:

1. The sources of injury from which shade trees are being injured
should be carefully studied.

2. The best local and general methods for protecting and preserving
the trees from these sources of injury should be considered and adopted.

3. A live and working civic association should be organized, and at
its head should be placed some intelligent, enthusiastic and public-
spirited citizen who will see that the work of inspecting and caring for
the trees is properly performed.

4. .State aid should be solicited, if necessary, in establishing a com^
mission that will frame new ordinances and justly punish all oft'enders.

Street Trees. 345

This Bulletin sets forth some of the following matters:

Injuries arising from gas escaping in the soil are widespread and may be serious.
When the injury is severe there is Httle hope of saving the trees. In the early
stages of such injury it is well to break up the hard surface soil and perhaps to
open a ditch in order to accelerate the aeration. Pages 453-454.

The injury from electric currents carried by overhead wires has come to be a
subject of considerable importance. The electric currents may injure or kill the
trees. Every effort should be taken to safeguard the trees against such injuries.
Pages 454-456.

The public and the owners of trees should keep a lookout to see that trees are
not injured by careless pruning on the part of linemen. Suggestions are given
as to ordinances that may control this evil. Pages 456-458.

Tree owners are warned against persons who may represent themselves as
competent to prune trees. Pruners should be employed only when their merits
are known, or when they come with reliable recommendations. Pages 459-460.

Attention is called to the injury that arises from various kinds of construction
work, carelessness of contractors, and the like, together with suggestions as to
remedies. Pages 461-462.

What to do when it is necessary to fill about trees is explained on page 462.

The danger from wind and ice storms may be lessened by the proper choice of
kinds of trees, and also by careful pruning and removal of all dead wood. Pages
462-463.

Winter-killing may be avoided in part by proper choice of the kinds of trees.
Suggestions are given for treating winter-injured trees. Pages 463-464; 471.

Attention is called to injuries from the bites of horses and from wagon wheels.
Remedy lies largely in stimulating public sentiment and in enforcing ordinances.
Pages 464-465.

In city streets the root systems are likely to be starved for lack of food and
water. Suggestions are made for gratings about trees that will let the water in,
and instructions are given for the removal of poor soil and filling in with good soil.
Pages 465-467.

Smoke and gas inay injure trees. The remedy is to choose trees that are likely
to be least affected and also to enforce ordinances. Page 468.

The over-crowding and improper placing of trees results in very bad effects.
There should be some general oversight over such matters. Pages 468-469.

Attention is called to the necessity of removing wire labels to avoid injury to
trees, and directions are given for bridge-grafting trees that have been inji-red.
Page 469.

Means of providing support for newly planted trees are outlined on pages 469-470.

Various kinds of guards for protecting trees against horses and wagons are
described on pages 470-471.

Gratings or grills to be placed around trees in paved streets to allow the water
to enter the soil, are described on page 471.

The ways of pruning trees and the objects to be secured in the operation are
detailed on pages 472-476.

The protecting and dressing of wounds is described on pages 476-477.

Discussion of "tree surgery," or the dressing of large wounds, injuries, and
decayed places, is described on pages 478-480. All decayed parts are carefully
removed and the cavities filled with cement.

The bolting and chaining of trees to save weak or broken parts Is described
on pages 480-483.

The remainder of the Bulletin (pages 483-489) is devoted to a discussion of some
of the main points in the municipal control of shade crees. The same ideas may
be extended, with necessary modifications, to the rural districts.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION

The Following Bulletins are Available for Distribution to Those
Residents of New York State Who May Desire Them.

93 The Cigar-Case-Bearer.
121 Suggestions for planting Shrubbery.
129 How to conduct Field Experiments with
Fertilizers, 11 pp.

134 Strawberries under Glass.

135 Forage Crops.

136 Chrysanthemums.

137 Agricultural Extension Work, Sketch of its

Origin and Progress.

139 Third Report upon Japanese Plums.

140 Second Report upon Potato Culture.

141 Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among

Swill-Fed Hogs.

142 The Codling-Moth.

143 Sugar Beet Investigations.

144 Suggestions on Spraying and on the San

Jos6 Scale.

145 Some Important Pear Diseases.

146 Fourth Report of Progress on Extension

Work.

147 Fourth Report upon Chrysanthemums.

148 Quince Curculio.

14 J Some Spraying Mixtures.

150 Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control.

151 Gravity of Dilution Separators.

152 Studies in Milk Secretion.

153 Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries.

154 Table for Computing Rations for Farm

Animals.

155 Second Report on San Jose Scale.

15 7 Grape-vine Flea-beetle.

158 Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bacteria

in Cheese Curd.

162 The Period of Gestation in Cows.

163 Three Important Fungous Diseases of the

Sugar Beet.
X64 Peach Leaf -Curl.

165 Ropiness in Milk and Cream.

166 Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898.

168 Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms; II.

170 Tent Caterpillars.

171 Concerning Patents on Gravity or Dilution

Separators.

172 The Cherry Fruit-Fly; A New Cherry Pest.
176 The Peach-Tree Borer.

179 Field Experiments with Fertilizers.

180 The Prevention of Peach Leaf-Curl.

182 Sugar Beet Investigations for 1899.

183 Sugar Beet Pulp as a Food for Cows.

184 The Grape Root- Worm; New Grape Pest

in New York.
1 8s The Common European Praying Mantis; A
New Beneficial Insect in America.

186 The Sterile Fungus Rhizoctonia.

187 The Palmer Worm.

189 Oswego Strawberries.

190 Three Unusual Strawberry Pests and a

Green house Pest.

192 Further Experiments against the Peach-

Tree Borer.

193 Shade Trees and Timber Destroying Fungi.

194 The Hessian Fly. Its Ravages in New York

in 1 90 1.

1 95 Further Observations upon the Ropiness in

Milk and Cream.

196 Fourth Report on Potato Culture.

198 Orchard Cover Crops.

199 Separator Skimmed Milk as Food for Pigs.

200 Muskmelons.

206 Sixth Report of Extension Work.

207 Pink Rot an Attendant of Apple Scab.

208 The Grape Root-Worm.

209 Distinctive Characteristics of the Species of

the Genus Lecanium.

210 Commercial Bean Growing in New York.
212 Cost of Producing Eggs. Second Report.
216 Spraying for Wild Mustard and the Dust

Spray.

219 Diseases of Ginseng.

220 Skimmed Milk for Pigs.

221 Alfalfa in New York.

222 Attempt to Increase the Fat in Milk by

Means of Liberal Feeding.
2 25 Bovine Tuberculosis.

227 Cultivation of Mushrooms by Amateurs.

228 Potato Growing in New York.

231 Forcing of Strawberries, Tomatoes, Cucum-

bers and Melons.

232 Influence of Fertilizers upon the yield of

Timothy Hay.

233 Two New Shade-Tree Pests.

234 The Bronze Birch Borer.

23s Cooperative Spraying Experiments.

237 Alfalfa — A Report of Progress.

238 Buckwheat.

239 Some Diseases of Beans.

240 The Influence of Mushrooms on the Growth

of some Plants.

241 Second Report on the Influence of Fertili-

zers on the Yield of Timothy Hay.

242 Cabbages for Stock Feeding.

243 Root Crops for Stock Feeding.

244 Culture and Varieties of Roots for Stock

Feeding.

245 Spray Calendar.

246 Gasoline-Heated Colony Brooder- House.

247 Importance of Nitrogen in the Growth of

Plants.

249 Four Methods of Feeding Early Hatched

Pullets.

250 Bovine Tuberculosis.

251 Plant-Breeding for Farmers.

252 Insect Pests and Plant Diseases.

253 Black-iot of the Grape.

254 Drainage in New York.
25 5 Bean Anthracnose

Address,

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

ITHACA, N. Y.
346

AUGUST, 1908 BULI^ETIN 257

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Department of Dairy Industry (Extension Work)

DEFECTS IN AMERICAN
CHEDDAR CHEESE

By C. A. PuBLOW

ITHACA, N. Y.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY

ORGANIZATION

Of The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station.

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.

ROBERT H. TREMAN, Trustee of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station.

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

EXPERIMENTING STAFF.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.

T. LYTTLETON LYON, Soil Investigations.

H. J. WEBBER, Plant Breeding.

B. M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology.
JOHN L. STONE, Farm Practice.
JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry.
MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.
GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.
ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soils.

W. A. STOCKING. Jr., Dairy Bacteriology.
HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.
G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops.
LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.
CHARLES S. WILSON, Pomology.
M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.
CHARLES I". CLARK, Agronomy.
JAMES A. BIZZELL, Soil Investigations.

C. A. PUBLOW, Dairy Industry.
CYRUS R. CROSBY. Entomology.

C. A. ROGERS, Poultry Husbandry.
P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

D. REDDICK, Plant Patliology.

E. R. MINXS. Farm Practice.
G. A. CRABB, Soils.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New
York State who request them.

m8

DEFECTS IX AMERICAN CHEDDAR CHEESE.
Causes, Remedies, and How to Prevent Them.

The purpose of this bulletin is to provide a ready reference that will
aid New York manufacturers of American cheddar cheese to prevent
or remedy the most common defects in their product. In order to
understand and to be able intelligently to remedy or prevent defects
in cheese, it is necessary to know just what the underlying causes are.
If a correct diagnosis is made, then the treatment is usually easy.

I. Defects in Flavor.

A. Acid Flavors.

Indicated by a sour smell and taste.

Cause.

Over-development of acid during the manufacturing period,
which is commonl}^ due to one or more of the following:
(i) Ripening the milk too much before adding the rennet.

(2) The use of too much starter.

(3) Failure to firm the curd before removing the whey.

How to prevent.

(i) Have less acid in the milk before adding the rennet. Sour
milk should not be accepted from any patron.

(2) Use less starter. Generally one-half per cent, to two per

cent, is sufficient.

(3) Add the rennet early enough so that the curd will become

firm in the whey before developing the desired amount of
acid.
Remedy.

Refer to the treatment explained under remedy for acid texture.
(Page 8.)

B. "Off" Flavors.

Flavors that are not clean. When in an advanced stage, cheese

so affected are called "stinkers."
Cause.

Undesirable bacteria which gain entrance to the milk or to

the curd some time during the manufacturing process,

commonly due to: —

349

350 Bulletin 257.

(1) Failure of patrons to wash thoroughly and scald all cans

and utensils coming in contact with the milk. This is
particularly true of cans in which whey is brought
from the factory.

(2) Careless milking in unclean places.

(3) Allowing the milk to become exposed after milking, in

places where the air is impure.

(4) Keeping the milk at too high temperature.

(5) Using an unclean strainer either at the farm or the cheese

isLctory.

(6) Using utensils in the factory that have not been thoroughly

cleaned and scalded.

(7) Using badly flavored starters.

(8) Using impure water for diluting rennet.

(9) Soaking curd in impure water after milling. This causes

lack of flavor and later on bad flavor.

(10) Using tainted rennet or salt.

(11) Ripening cheese at temperatures above 60° Fahr.

How to prevent.

By absolute cleanliness in the production and handling of the

milk and throughout the whole manufacturing process.
(i) All utensils, especially the milk strainer, should be thoroughly

washed with warm water and washing powder, then

scalded with live steam.

(2) Milking should be done in clean places, where dust, cob-

webs and flies are not found.

(3) Milk should be cooled to at least 60° and better 50°

Fahr., immediately after being drawn from the cow.

(4) Tainted milk should not be taken from any patron. If

uncertain of the source of tainted milk or curds, use the
fermentation test on each patron's milk.

(5) By the vise of clean flavored starter.

(6) Impure or bad smelling water should not be used.

(7) Screens should be on the doors and windows to prevent

the entrance of flies.

(8) Curds should not be soaked in impure water after milling.
Remedy.

(i) Firm the curd a little more than usual in the whey by rais-
ing the temperature.
(2) Develop a little more acid before removing all the whey.

Defects in American Cheddar Cheese. 351

(3) Mill early and expose well to fresh air by stirring for some

time immediately after. Excellent results can be secured
at this time because each small piece of curd has four
freshly cut surfaces which permit the gases and odors
to escape.

(4) Increase the amount of salt in extremely bad cases.

(5) Ripen the cheese at low temperatures.

C Fruity Flavors.

Sweet flavors having an odor like that of ripe fruits, such as
pineapple, raspberry, strawberry, etc. To the taste they
are not pleasant and somewhat sickening.
Cause.

(i) Bacteria carried into the milk by dirt.

(2) Transporting both milk and whey in the same cans that

have not been properly cleansed.

(3) Exposing milk to the air of hog-pens where whey is fed.

How to prevent.

(i) Cans used for delivering milk should not carry whey unless
they are emptied and thoroughly cleansed immediately
after arriving back from the factory.

(2) All whey should be pasteurized at the factories. This

would not only greatly reduce the source of badly flavored
milk, but it would eliminate the danger of transmission
of tuberculosis through the whey.

(3) The whey tanks should be cleaned and scalded at least twice

a week. A steel tank has the following advantages:
It is more durable than v/ood or cement, does not leak,
does not absorb the whey, is easily cleaned, and is cheaper
in the long run.

(4) Use a clean flavored commercial starter*

Remedy.

(i) Firm the curds a little more in the whey by raising the
temperature.

(2) Develop a little more acid.

(3) Air the curd well after milling.

(4) In extreme cases use more salt.

D. Bitter Flavors.

Indicated by a bitter taste and a "weedy'' odor.

Cause.

(i) Bacteria and yeasts.

(2) Allowing cows to wade in and drink from stagnant pools.

352 Bulletin 257.

(3) Using rusted milk cans or utensils.

(4) Using old starters that have developed too much acid.

(5) Using milk delivered in cans in which sour whey from dirty

tanks is returned.

How to prevent.

(i) Milk should be cooled to at least 60° and better to 50°
Fahr. immediately after milking.

(2) Rusted cans or utensils of any kind should not carry milk.

(3) Cows should have good water only.

(4) Clean flavored starters only should be used.
Remedy.

(1) Very little acid should be developed before removing the

whey.

(2) Firm the curd more than usual. Heat it higher in the whey

and stir it dryer when removing the whey.

(3) Mill early and expose well to fresh air by stirring.

(4) In extreme cases use more salt.

E. Food Flavors.

Those characteristic of the foods eaten by a cow. A food flavor
can be distinguished from one produced by bacteria in
that a bacterial flavor usually gets worse as the milk
or cheese ages, while a food flavor generally decreases
with age.
Cause,

(i) Such foods as turnips, onions, leeks, weeds, garlic, rape,
decayed silage and clover.

(2) Exposing milk in an atmosphere where any of these are

exposed.

(3) Storing milk in cellars where decayed vegetables are present.
How to prevent.

(i) Foods that impart any objectionable flavor to milk should
not be fed or made accessible to the cow.

(2) Use a good commercial starter.
Remedy.

(i) Heat the curd several degrees higher in the whey. The
high temperature helps to drive off the volatile flavors.

(2) Air the curd well, especially after milling.

(3) Ripen the cheese at a low temperature.

Defects in American Cheddar Cheese. 353

IT. Defects in Texture and Body.

F. Dry Textures.

Cheese that are too firm, mealy, rubbery or corky.

Cause.

Lack of moisture or butter fat or both, produced by
(i) Removing part of the butter fat from the milk.

(2) Too high heating in the whey.

(3) Heating too long.

(4) Too much stirring at the time of removing the whey.

(5) Using too much salt.

(6) Curing cheese in an atmosphere that is too dry or too hot.
A "high cooked" cheese is rubbery or cork}'; one that has

been stirred too dry is mealy or sandy ; and one dry from
excess of salt tastes salty. This is a convenient way of
determining the cause of such defects.

How to prevent.

(i) All the milk-fat should be retained in the cheese as far as
possible.

(2) The lower the temperature used for heating and still have

the curd firm enough, the better will be the texture of the
cheese.

(3) Be absolutely sure of the correctness of thermometers.

(4) Study the moisture content and the amount of stirring and

salt required.
Remedy.

(i) Pile dry curds higher.

(2) Keep the air moist by placing hot water in the vat.

(3) Do not mill dry curds early.

(4) A dry curd can be made mellow by soaking in pure cold

water after milling, but the cheese will not have a good
keeping quality.

(6) Paraffine the cheese as soon as possible.

(7) Ripen the cheese in a cool room where the atmosphere con-

tains at least eighty per cent, moisture.

G. Acid Textures.

These may be either dry or moist, but in either case they are

of a mealy or sandy character. They have a sour taste.

Cause.

(i) Ripening the milk too much before adding the rennet.

(2) The development of too much acid during the manufacture

especially before the whey is removed.
12

354 Bulletin 257.

(3) The great majority of acid or sour cheese are caused, not

by the giving of too much acid, but by not having the
curd firmed in the whey when the acid has developed.

(4) Using large starters.

How to prevent.

(i) No sour milk or milk containing more than twenty-six
hundredths of one per cent acid should be taken from
any patron.

(2) Add the rennet early enough so that the curd may be firmed

in the whey by the time the acid has developed sufficiently.

(3) Do not use too much starter.

(4) Keep the development of acid under control by controlling

the moisture.
Remedy.

When it is absolutely necessary to make sour milk into cheese

it should be done in the following manner:
(i) Heat the milk not above 80° Fahr.

(2) Use an extra amount of rennet.

(3) Cut the curd into smaller pieces.

(4) Heat higher. The degree of heat will depend on the rapidity

with which the acid is developing. Most fast working
curds contract rapidly so the heating can be hurried.

(5) As soon as possible after heating the whey should be run

down to the level of the curd. This greatly facilitates
stirring and firming of the curd, and if more than one vat
is being used, time is saved when the remainder of the
whey is to be removed. If by this time the curd is not
firm and shows too much acid, a sour cheese can be pre-
vented by,

(6) Removing the whey and putting on pure water at a

temperature of 102° Fahr. The amount of water used
and the time it is left on will depend on the amount of
acid in the curd. In extreme cases it may be necessary
to use a second quantity of water. As soon as the curd
becomes firmed in the water and the acid reduced to a
normal amount, the water should be removed. The
curd should then be treated like an ordinary sweet one.
This method is not to be confounded with the "soaked
curd" process, which is different.

(7) If after milling curds are sour, they can be improved by a

washing in pure water at 80° Fahr. This resembles the

Dii:"::c'is ix American CiiKnoAU Cheese. 355

"soaked curd" process and as a nile the cheese have not
a good keeping quality. However, it is much better than
allowing the cheese to sour, and should be used in ex-
treme cases.
Use an extra amount of salt after washing.

H. Loose or Open Texture.

Also called soft or weak bodied. These cheese are very soft
and full of holes. Such defects are noticed more when
found in export cheese, as for that trade a close boring
cheese is demanded.

Cause.

(i) Developing too little acid and retaining too much moisture.

(2) Putting curd to press at too high a temperature.

(3) Lack of pressing.

(4) Soaking curd in water after milling.

How to prevent.

(i) Have at least .24 per cent, acid in whey running from the
curd after it is piled for cheddaring.

(2) The curd should be cooled to at least 80° Fahr. before press-

ing. This can be hastened by running cold water around
the outside of the vat lining.

(3) Two days pressing is much better than one, A continuous

pressure is of more value than a short heavy pressure.

(4) Curd should not be soaked in water.

Remedy.

(i) Open cheese can be closed up considerably by repressing,
(2) Ripen in a cool atmosphere,

I. Yeasty Cheese.

Indicated in the green cheese by small white pin holes which
later enlarge into fish-eye-like slits. The flavor is usually
bitter. Colored cheese when affected usually become
mottled. A bitter flavor can usually be detected in the
milk and curd. The curd may exhibit peculiar character-
istics. It is usually difficult to firm in the whey. The
acid appears to develop slowly at first, but very fast from
the time the whey is started till it is all removed. After
milling the curd will become "mushy" if it is at all moist,
and the whey running from the curd may show less acid
than it did before milling. The curd is usually very

356 Bulletin 257,

slow to shrink up before salting. In extreme cases the
whey tank may boil as though heated by fire.

Cause.

(i) Yeasts. These enter the milk on hay dust and from leaves
of trees. They grow and multiply most rapidly when
milk is kept at temperatures above 60° Fahr.

(2) Returning sour or unpasteurized whey in milk cans aggra-
vates the trouble.

How to prevent.

(i) Milk should be kept free from dust, and should be cooled
to at least 60° Fahr. as soon as milked.

(2) Use a clean commercial starter.

(3) The whey should be pasteurized and the tanks cleaned every

day.

(4) If the trouble is already present, the whey tank, all factory

utensils and all patrons' milk cans and utensils should be
thoroughly cleaned and scalded.

Remedy.

(i) Add the rennet early.

(2) Heat curd in the whey a few degrees higher.

(3) Draw off the whey with as little acid as is practical, but

have the curd well firmed first.

(4) Do not pile the curd high unless gas is present.

(5) If gas is present, more acid must be developed at dip-

ping, but the curd should be stirred dr\'er.

(6) After milling, if the curd tends to become mushy, one-half

the salt should be applied. When the curd is well shrunken,
apply the other half.

J. Gassy Cheese.

Indicated by the presence of pin-holes. They usually have a
bad flavor, are spongy, and the curd may float on the
whey in the early stage of manufacture.
Cause.

(i) Gassy milk produced by bacteria which are carried in by

dirt.
(2) Gassy starters.

How to prevent.

(i) Gassy milk should not be accepted from any patron.
(2) Gassy starters should not be used.

Defects in American Cheddar Cheese. 357

Remedy.

(i) If it is known that the milk is gass}', use a safe amount of
clean commercial starter.

(2) Ripen the milk a trifle more before adding the rennet.

(3) After cutting, stir the curd till whey around it shows at least

15 per cent, acid before heating.

(4) Heat slowly. Take from thirty minutes to one hour.

(5) Care should be taken to not have the curd too firm in the

whey before the acid starts. An acidimeter is a
valuable guide at this time.

(6) A little more acid should be allowed to develop before

removing the whey. About .32 per cent, after the whey
is all off is sufficient.

(7) Should the curd float, remove enough whey to bring the

curd to the bottom of the vat.

(8) Pile gassy curds before and after milling.

(9) After milling, the curd should be thoroughly stirred and

aired before piling. The pressure causes the small pieces
to become very thin. After the piling and airing have
been repeated a few times at intervals of fifteen to twenty
minutes, the gases should have nearly all escaped. The
pin-holes will then have become flattened and present
a "dead" appearance.

(10) The whey running from the curd at this time should show

1.2 per cent acid.

(11) Cool curd well before hooping.

(12) Press for two days if possible.

(13) Ripen in a cool place.

K. Greasy Texture.

Indicated by free butter located in mechanical holes in the
cheese. The cheese surfaces are usually greasy. This
condition is most common in the spring time.
Cause.

(i) Allowing milk to become too old before manufacturing.
In factories that do not take milk on Sunday the trouble
is always greatest on Monday.

(2) Heating milk too high or too long before adding rennet.

(3) Handling curd too roughly.

(4) Piling curd too much.

(5) Maturing curd at high temperature.

358 Bulletin 257.

(6) Using a mill that bruises the curd.

(7) Ripening cheese in hot curing rooms.

How to prevent.

(i) Make up the milk daily

(2) Cut and stir the curd very carefully while soft.

(3) Do not pile curd more than two layers deep,

(4) Do not heat milk or curd too high. Be sure of thermometers.

(5) Use a mill that cuts the curd without squeezing the fat from

it. The knives should move against the curd and not
the curd against the knives.

(6) Apply the salt soon after milling and mature curd in the salt.

(7) Ripen cheese in a cool room.

Remedy.

(i) Rinse the curd with pure water at 90° Fahr. before salting.
Then use a trifle more salt.

(2) Cool curd before hooping.

(3) Use large clean press cloths to insure a good rind formation.

(4) Use sufficient hot water at time of dressing the cheese.

III. Defects in Color.

L. Pale or Acid Cut Color.

This term explains itself.

Cause.

(i) The development of too much acid which bleaches or cuts
the color from the curd.

(2) Failure to firm the curd early enough in the whey.

(3) Using large starters.

(4) Using poor color.

How to prevent.

(i) Have the curd firmed in the whey before the acid has develop-
ed to more than eighteen one-hundredths of one per cent.

(2) Cheese should be colored to suit the market for which they
are intended.
Remedy.

(i) The best place and time to produce a bright even color in
the curd is while the whey is being removed. From the
time the whey has reached the level of the curd till it is
all removed, the curd should be well stirred. The
color can be seen to develop rapidly during this
handling,

Defects ix American Cheddar Cheese. 359

(2) Allow the curd to stand sometime after salting before hoop-
ing.

M. Mottled Color.

An uneven color, most noticeable in colored cheese.

Cause.

(i) An uneven development of acid and moisture in the curd.

(2) Uneven cutting, leading to an uneven contraction of the

curd when heated in the whey.

(3) Neglecting to strain the starter when lumpy.

(4) Adding starter after color.

(5) Uneven piling and maturing of curds.

(6) Use of poor color.

(7) Mixing curds from different vats.

(8) Lumpy conditions of the curd at time of removing the

whey or when salt is applied.

(9) Adding old curd.

(10) Yeasts. When due to these the mottling increases with

the age of the cheese.

How to prevent.

(i) By uniform cutting, heating and stirring. This is facilitated
by the use of a five-sixteenth inch perpendicular wire
knife, and a five-eighths inch horizontal steel knife.

(2) Each particle of curd should be kept separated from the

others while being heated.

(3) Starter should always be strained.

(4) Starter should be added before the color.

(5) Curds from different vats should not be mixed.

(6) Old curd should be placed in the vat about fifteen minutes

before the whey is removed.

Remedy.

When curds are badly mottled there is no remedy that will make
the color uniform. In some instances the color will
become more even as the cheese ages.

N. Seamy Color.

A condition in which the outline of each piece of curd can be
easily seen in the cheese. The uniting surfaces are marked
by a pale line.

Cause.

(i) Greasy curds, which prevent an even absorption of salt.
(2) Impure salt.

360 Bulletin 257.

How to prevent.

(i) If curds are very greasy they should be rinsed off with pure

water at 90° Fahr. just before salting.
(2) Only high grade salt should be used.

Remedy.
Prevention.

O. Rusty Spots.

Red spots resembling rust, and located usually where two pieces
of curd have pressed together.
Most noticeable in white cheese.
Cause.

(i) Bacillus rudensis, which gains entrance to the milk or curd.

(2) Unsanitary buildings and surroundings. When whey leaks
through the factory floor, the red material formed by
these bacteria may develop. It may then be carried
into the factory by wind or flies. Once in the factory
every utensil used in the manufacturing soon becomes
infected and the trouble increases.

How to prevent.

(i) Keep everything used in the factory absolutely clean.

(2) Do not allow the factory floor to leak. Cement floors are

most sanitary.

(3) Keep the drain and drain pipes clean.

(4) Use screen doors and windows during fly time.

Remedy.

(i) The only way to get rid of this trouble is by a thorough

cleaning and disinfecting of the factory surroundings

and all utensils.
(2) The starter, if one is used, should be renewed.

How to clean and disinfect.

(i) Wash all utensils with a brush, hot water, and washing
powder, and put them into the large milk vat.

(2) Put a cover over the vat and turn live steam into it.

(3) Steam the utensils for at least one-half hour.

(4) If the drains are dirty, clean them with hot water and wash-

ing powder. Then steam them for at least twenty min-
utes.

(5) If the ground surrounding or under the factory is infected,

have it covered with lime or fresh earth

Defects in American Cheddar Cheese. 361

(6) The Inside walls, cheese shelves and all wood work should
be washed with a hot solution of bichlorid of mercury.
This is made by dissolving seven and one-half grains of
bichlorid of mercury in one pint of water. Apply this
solution with a brush or broom, as it is a poison.

IV. Defects in Finish.

Anything that detracts from the appearance of a cheese is a defect.
As a rule it is a defect due to carelessness on the part of the maker.

P. Unclean Surfaces.

Cause.

(i) Placing cheese on unclean or moulded shelves in the curing

room.
(2) Using dirty hoops or handling the cheese with dirty hands.

How to prevent.

(i) Wash the shelves after each shipment of cheese leaves the
factory. Use a brush, hot water, and some good washing
powder that will remove grease Place them in the sun-
light to dry.

(2) Cheese hoops should be clean. So should the hands of the
maker.

Q. Cracked Rinds.

Openings in the side or ends of the cheese. They are unsightly
and allow the entrance of moulds, flies, etc.
Cause.

(i) Too much acid.

(2) Greasy curds.

(3) Use of hard press cloths.

(4) Lack of pressing.

(5) Wrinkled bandages.

(6) Too dry an atmosphere in curing room.

How to prevent. •

(i) Avoid excess acid. (See remedy for acid texture, p. 8.)

(2) Rinse greasy curds with water at 90° Fahr. before salting.

(3) Press cloths can be softened by soaking in a weak solution

of sulphuric acid.

(4) Press cheese longer before dressing.

(5) Curing room atmosphere should register eighty per cent.

moisture.

362 Bulletin 257.

Remedy.

(i) Repress the cheese. If this fails,
(2) Parafhne the cheese.

R. Mouldy Surfaces.

The formation may be of several colors.

Cause.

The growth of moulds is due to
(i) Too much moisture in the air.

(2) Atmosphere too warm.

(3) Not enough circulation of air.

(4) Lack of cleanliness in curing room.

How to prevent.

(i) Curing rooms should be so equipped that the temperature
and moisture can be controlled.

(2) Good circulation of air should be provided,

(3) Curing room should be kept clean.

Remedy.

(i) By spraying cheese with ten per cent, formalin.

(2) By burning sulfur, three pounds to one thousand cubic

feet of air.

(3) By washing the ceilings, walls, shelves and all wood-work

with a hot solution of bichlorid of mercury (poisonous)
made by dissolving seven and one-half grains in a pint
of water, and then washing with clear water.

(4) By whitewashing the walls and ceilings.

V. Facts a Cheesemaker Should Remember.

The finished cheese can be no better than the milk from which it is
made.

Every cheesemaker should be familiar with the use of the acidimeter
and the fermentation tegt.

The cheese factory should be a centre of rural dairy education.

The maker should be qualified to teach his patrons.

If the factory building is neatly painted, if the surroundings are tidy,
and if the maker himself has a good appearance, it will be easier to induce
the patrons to furnish better milk.

It will be of much greater value to both the cheesemaker, the patron
and the consumer, if in the future more attention is given to the improve-
ment of quality rather than quantity.

1

SEPTEMBER. 1908

BULLETIN 258

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Department of Poultry Husbandry

THE MOLTING OF FOWLS

;s=v

By James E. Rice, Clara Nixon and Clarence A. Rogers.

Ithaca, N. Y.
Published by the University.

ORGANIZATION

Of The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment

Station.

BOARD OF CONTROL
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY

the agricultural college and station council
JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University.
ROBERT H. TREMAN, Trustee of the University.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the College and Experiment Station.
EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University.
JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology.
HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry.

experimenting staff

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology.

HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry.

JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture.

T. LYTTLETON LYON, Soil Investigations.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Plant Breeding.

BENJAMIN M. DUGGAR, Plant Physiology.

JOHN L. STONE, Farm Practice.

JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry.

MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology.

GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry.

ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soils.

W. A. STOCKING, Jr, Dairy Bacteriology.

HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology.

G. F. WARREN, Farm Crops.

LOWELL B. JUDSON, Horticulture.

CHARLES S. WILSON, Pomology.

M. W. HARPER, Animal Husbandry.

CHARLES F. CLARK, Agronomy.

JAMES A. BIZZELL, Soil Investigations.

C. A. PUBLOW, Dairy Industry.

CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology.

C. A. ROGERS. Poultry Husbandry.
P. J. WHITE, Farm Crops.

D. REDDICK, Plant Pathology.

E. R. MINN>-, Farm Practice.
G. A. CRABB, Soils.

The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New
York State who request them.

THE MOLTING OF FOWLS

In recent years much has been said in print and on the platform about
the advisability of attempting to force fowls to shed their feathers early
in the season with the hope of inducing them to lay earlier in the winter
than they would if allowed to follow their natural habit. The method
by which this early molt was said to be secured was by starving the
fowls for a few weeks, which would cause egg-production to cease and
the feathers to loosen through lack of nourishment. This starvation
process was followed by liberal feeding on rich, feather-making and
egg-producing rations, which were supposed to force a uniform, rapid
and complete early molt and a quick growth of new feathers, followed
closely by heavy, early -winter laying. As to the wisdom of the practice,
practical poultrymen disagree. Among those who have tried various
methods of so-called "forcing the molt," there are many different opin-
ions, both as to the best methods to follow and the value of the results
to be obtained. Some few who have tried "forcing the molt" favor
the practice; others are equally strong in condemning it.

In all the discussions there appear to be few facts presented, either
for or against the plan, that may be considered to be conclusive. Almost
no comparative results are available. The experiences cited are isolated
cases with single flocks where the results secured may have been due
to any one of a large number of contributory causes other than the
method of feeding for "forcing the molt." The only data on the subject
from the Experiment Stations states that the molt can be hastened by
certain methods of feeding.* Furthermore, a careful study of the
literature on the subject reveals the fact that little appears to be known
about the sequence in plumage and the nature of the molt of the
domestic fowl.

With the object in view of securing facts as to the nature and growth
of feathers and conditions that govern their development, several series
of observations have been made at Cornell, and a feeding experiment
undertaken, the methods and results of which are now to be discussed.

For convenience and clearness the subject is presented in two parts:

I. Observations on the development of feathers and the sequence
in plumage (By Clara Nixon), pages 20 to 28.

II. Experiments in which an attempt was made to "force the molt."
(First half by Frank S. Conger; second half by C. A. Rogers), pages
28 to 65.

* Atwood, Bulletin 83, Wsst Virginia Experiment Station,

365

366

Bulletin 258.

PART I. SEQUENCE IN PLUMAGE OF THE DOMESTIC FOWL.

Before undertaking to solve the problem of how to force fowls to molt,
it is important to know the nature of the feathers and how they develop.

Where the first chick feathers come from.
"While the first body-covering of a chick may or may not be called
plumage, it is shed and replaced as if it were plumage. The method of

Fig. I. — Pin-feathers on the wing of a White Leghorn chick
just from the shell. Notice the down tips clinging to the end
of the pin-feathers.

molting, however, is peculiar to the downy coat. The baby chick (in
this case a Leghorn) when it comes from the shell, has pin-feathers for
flights (Fig. i). In two or three days it develops pin-feathers that

The Molting of T'owls.

367

will become main tail feathers (Fig. 2). The down grows longer and,
on certain areas of the body, develops shafts. Within a few days the
shafts burst open, allowing the web of the feather to spread out; but
the down often clings to the tip of the opened feather (Figs, i, 2, 3a, 4a).

Fig. 2. — White Leghorn chick four days old, shozvDig the development ol tail a)id wing.
Notice the down tips still clinging to a few of both tail and wing feathers, while
others have been shed.

The ragged appearance to be noticed on two or three weeks' old chicks
is due to this clinging of the down tips.

Sequence in the growth of feathers.

The first body-feathers to appear are those at the throat, just above
the crop (Figs. 5, 6, 7). From this point, a line of feathers extends

368

Bulletin 258.

FlG. 3. — Parts of a fluff feather; a. natal (iozcii; b, barbs and
barbulcs; c, base of feather, cut apart.

The Molting of Fowls.

369

Fig. 4. — Parts of a shaft feather, a, natal down, b, web of ptn-
feather, c, sheath; d, shaft.

down each side of the crop and breast (Figs. 5, and 6). When this
Una begins to show, a tuft appears on each thigh and a hne down the
spine (Figs. 5, 6, 7). The feathered areas increase m size as the

3/0

Bulletin 258.

chick grows older, so that, at the age of four or five weeks, they have
grown together, and the healthy chick looks to be well feathered (Fig. 9).
The wings and .

° a b c

back are covered,
the feathers grow-
ing well up the
back of the head,
and the breast is
protected except a
small space over
the crop. The
rear of the body is
covered by the
flights, the feathers
on the thighs, and
a tuft near the rear
of the keel bone.
The legs are en-
circled by a ring
of feathers just
above the shank.
In a word, the
chick's body is
protected by its
feathers at every
vital point (Figs.
5. 6, 7- 9)-

The chick feathers
are molted.

gen-

It is not
erally known
whether the chick
feathers grow
larger with the
chick's develop-
ment or whether
they are replaced

by new ones; therefore, an effort was made to determine this point. A
number of chicks, just from the incubator, were leg-banded and their
down stained. These chicks were inspected daily for several weeks,

Fig. 5. — Feather tracts in White Leghorn chick 4
weeks old. — Front view: a, keel; b, throat; c, breast;
d, flight-coverts; e, flights; /, leg; g, fluff; h, shank.

The Molting of Fowls.

371

and, as the feathers appeared, an attempt was made to stain them also.

The color took well on the flights and tail feathers, not as well on the

b G body feathers.

The first feathers
were stained red
and those that
replaced them
were stained
black. At the
age of eight
weeks, all the red
feathers in tail
and wings had
been molted, and
at thirteen weeks,
all the black
feathers had been
replaced by white
ones. At the
times mentioned,
the bodies were
covered with pin-
feathers ; but this
does not prove
that these feath-
ers replaced
others which had
been shed. This
sequence of molts
corresponds very
closely to the se-
quence of molts
in young wild
birds.*

From thirteen
weeks to just
before maturity
(five to six
months) the
chicks were net

Fig. 6. — Feather tracts of White Leghorn at 4 weeks. —
Side diagonal view: a, breast; b, neck; c, inside of
wing; d, flight-coverts; e, back; f, tail; g, thigh.

* Dwight — "Sequence of Plumage and Molts of the Passerine Birds of New York."

Z72

Bulletin 258.

observed to molt. They then shed all their feathers and assumed
a more mature dress, the pullets apparently getting their full
plumage. They lost their chick voice, developed bright red combs,
and, to all appear-
ances, were about
to begin to lay.
The rotation of
this molt was
nearly the same
as the rotation of
featheri n'g i n
chicks, the oldest
feathers being shed
first. The wing
and tail feathers,
which were the
first to appear on
the chick, were,
however, retained
until the bird was ^
well along in the
molt, and in many
cases were not all
shed until after the
body molt was
completed. The
time of molting
the flights and tail
feathers varied in
different individ-
uals, but these
feathers were
usually shed in
pairs, one on each f
wing or corre-
sponding feathers
on each side of
the tail, as the ^

° V 6' piG_ y_ — Feather tracts tn chick of White Leghorn at

12 and cover cut). ^ weeks.— Side view: a, keel; b, breast; c, neck; d,

The first tail feath- back; e, tail; f, leg.

The Molting of Fowls.

373

ers to be shed were usually the middle pair; the first wing feathers to
be molted were commonly the last primary or first secondary on each
wing, counting from the tip. The last feathers to be replaced were the

ones on the inside of the wing just
above the primaries and secondaries,
a small tuft on the body just in
front of the thigh, and the flight
coverts (See cover cut, and Figs. 5,
6, 7, 12).

Fig. 8. — Feathering at different ages.
Tail and wings well out at 19
days.

The molting of pullets.
The pullets appeared to undergo
this molt whether they laid or not.
After the pullets began to lay, they
seemed to shed no more feathers
so long as they continued in pro-
duction. When they ceased to lay,
many of them began to molt. In
some cases the molt was complete,
extending to the flights and the tail; in others it went no farther than
the body feathers, while, in still others, it included only a few feathers
on different parts of the body.

In former experiments conducted
at this Station (Bulletin 249) the
pullets beginning production be-
fore September first, nearly always
molted the entire plumage in the
fall. The number of eggs laid be-
fore molting did not appear to in-
fluence the completeness of the
molt. One pullet laid thirty eggs
and molted completely; another
laid one egg and molted just as
completely. Some of the pullets
which began to lay at a later date,
continued to lay throughout the
winter and spring, not molting
until the following regular molting season. One of these laid 230 eggs
between molts — about 58 per cent production for the entire time —
thirteen months and six days.*

Fig. 9. — Body well covered with feathers
at 2, A days.

*llie pullet molts arc more fully discussed in bulletin No. 249 of the. Cornell
Experiment Station.

374

Bulletin 258.

Time and sequence of the mature molt.

The first mature molt comes at the end of the first year of laying.
It seems to be a necessary renewal of the worn-out plumage. Feathers,
like clothes, wear out (Fig. 11).

In the mature molt, it was found that the rotation followed closely
that of the pre-nuptial* molt before egg production commenced, — the
oldest feathers being shed first. The mature molt seldom began while
the hen was laying. Quite a few feathers might be shed earlier in the
season, and during
production ; but, in
most cases, the
shedding of feath-
ers ceased for a
week or two, —
often for a much
longer period, then
the entire plumage
was renewed. For
convenience, this
latter part of the
molt is termed the
" general molt."
During this molt,
some hens shed
only a few feathers
at a time in the
different feather
tracts, looking well clothed throughout the molt, while others shed almost
the entire plumage at once. This quick shedding gave a good oppor-
tunity to observe the feather tracts on a hen (Cover cut and Fig. 12).
The flight coverts, (the small, stiff feathers on the finger of the wing),
often persisted long after the other plumage was molted. These feathers,
which had been colored, were observed on several hens as late as April
following the molt, and were then apparently as firmly fixed as ever.

PART II. AN ATTEMPT TO FORCE THE MOLT.

On August 11, 1906, we arranged 232 Single Comb White Leghorn
fowls in six pens for the molting experiment. The details of housing,
feeding and management may be stated, in order that the reader may
have a complete mental picture Dt the experiments.

Fig. 10. — Completely plumed with chick feathers a/ 54

days.

* Dwight — "Sequence in Plumage of Passerine Birds."

The IMolting (jf Fowls.

Z7^

Housing.

In pens 5 and 8 there were respectively 40 and 38 three-year-old hens,
in pens 19 and 22, there were 40 and 42 two-year-old hens, and in pens
24 and 25, there were 34 one-year-old hens each. The flocks in each set
of pens were divided as near equally as possible in regard to weight and
vigor. The experiment was continued until November 8, 1907, covering
a period of 455 days. This time was divided into fifteen 28 day periods

Fig. II. — New and old feathers, i, new back-feather , 2, new fluff -feather; 3, worn
back-feather , 4, worn fluff -feather, a, tip, b, web, c, down; d, ihaft, e, bract.

and one 35 day period. Males were kept in pens 24 and 25 throughout
the entire experiment, and in the other pens during the winter and early
summer only. The hens in pens 24 and 25 (one-year-olds) were trap-
nested, the records having been begun January 24, 1906.

Flocks 5 and 8 were kept in the same house. Each of these pens contained
2.25 square feet floor space; .13 square feet cloth or glass surface; and 17.5 cubic
feet air space per hen. Flocks 19 and 22 were in the same house m similar pens
each containing 2 square feet floor space and 1.2 square feet cloth or glass surface

per fowi, Pen ig having 18.2 cubic feet, and Pen 22, 15.4 cubic feet, of air space
per fowl, in the roosting room. (Computed un a basis of the inimber of hens in

3/6

Bulletin 258.

the pens when the experiment was begun.) Each pen had, also, in the scratching
shed, 2.75 square feet floor space, .6 square feet cloth or glass surface, and 23
cubic feet air space per fowl. Flocks 24 and 25 each had 4.4 square feet floor space,
.29 square feet cloth or glass surface, and 37.6 cubic feet air space per hen. The
three-year-old hens (pens 5 and 8) and two-year-old hens (pens 19 and 22) were
in houses having double boarded, solid walls. The one-year-old hens (pens 24
and 25) were in a double walled house with dfead air space stuffed with straw and
with a straw loft. It was exceptionally warm, and so close as to be objectionable.

An effort was
made to provide
all flocks with
fresh air by having
the windows open
much of the time
by day, and cloth
frames in the
windows during
the night.

While the house
conditions were
slightly different
between the pens
of the three-year-
olds (pens 5 and
8), two-year-olds
(pens 19 and 22),
and one-year-olds
(pens 24 and 25),
the pens occupied
by the fowls of
the same age were
similar.

Flocks 5 and 8
(three -year -olds)
were allowed to
run in similar
yards with limited

grass forage. The other flocks had constant access when out of doors to alfalfa
pasturage. All flocks were confined to the pens during November, December,
January and February.

Methods of feeding.

The attempt to force the molt was by means of restricting the amount of food,
rather than by changing the quality of the ration. The starvation period lasted
for four weeks. In the first week, the amount of food was gradually reduced to
one-half the usual quantity. In the following two weeks, about one-third rations
were fed, which were gradually increased in the fourth week till, at its close
the flocks which had been starved were given all they would eat.

Three flocks were fed in the usual way and the other three Hocks were given a
similar ration, but in limited (luantity. Tlie three flocks that were given the

Fig. 12. — Heavy molt. A White Leghorn hen in full molt.
Note the feather tracts as compared to figs. 5, 6, 7.

The Molting of Fowls. 377

restricted ration will be termed the " starved " flocks and the three that were fed
in the usual way will be called the " fed " flocks.

The flocks were so arranged as to compare the effect of the so-called "forcing
of the molt" on fowls of three different ages. Flocks 5 (starved) and 8 (fed) were
three years old: flocks 19 (starved) and 22 (fed) were two years old; and flocks
24 (starved) and 25 (fed) were one year old.

Each flock received the same kind of mixed grains, which were thrown into
the litter every morning and evening. This mixture was varied from time to
time throughout the experiment for periods beginning with dates as follows:

August II, 1906 — cracked com, lofb; wheat, 6tt); oats, 81b.

January 12, 1907 — com, ^Yh; wheat, 31b; oats, 41b; buckwheat, 2lb.

March 30, 1907 — cracked com, 31b; wheat, 31b; oats, 2fb.

June 29, 1907 — com, isfb; wheat, 9tb; oats, i2fb.

August 24, 1907 — cracked com, lotb; wheat, 61b; oats, 4tb.

The ground grains and meat mixture was hopper-fed to flocks 19 and 22, the
hoppers being open at all times. The same ground grain and meat mixture was
fed to flocks 5 and 8 and 24 and 25 in a moist condition, water and occasionally
vegetable soup being used to moisten it. This ground grain and meat mixture
was varied from time to time for periods beginning with dates as follows:

August II, 1906 — com meal, 41b; wheat bran, 2tb; wheat middlings, 31b; oil
meal, ilb; alfalfa meal, itb; meat scraps, ilb.

January 25, 1907 — corn meal, 41b; wheat bran, 2lb; wheat middlings, 3tb; oil
meal, ilb; alfalfa meal, ilb; meat scraps, 2 lb.

February 15, 1907 — com meal, 81b; w^heat bran, 2 lb; wheat middlings. 2 lb; oil
meal, ilb; alfalfa meal, ilb; meat scraps, 2 lb.

March 23, 1907 — com meal, 51b; wheat bran, 31b; wheat middlings, 41b; oil
•meal, ilb; alfalfa meal, ^Ib; meat scraps, 41b.

Mangel beets were fed in limited quantity during the winter months, as was
also green cut bone.

Grit and oyster shells were always accessible.

Observations and records.

All of the fowls were weighed at the beginning of the experiment and at the end
of important periods in the experiment. Observations were made of the fertility
and hatching-power of eggs from the trap-nested pens. The conditions of pro-
duction, and broodiness and general health were observed in all the pens throughout
the experiment.

Molting observations were made of each hen every week throughout the molting
season, beginning August nth, 1906, and continuing until the hens had all com-
pleted their molt, on January 26th, 1907.

To aid in observing the molt, and to detect quickly fowls that escaped from
the pens, the hens (all White Leghoms) were dipped in Diamond Dyes (Fig. 13).
The feathers took the stain well, thus making distinctly visible the new white
plumage that later appeared. In order to tabulate the observations of the various
stages of the molt they were designated as follows, as shown in the tables:

(i) N. M.=Not Molting — The hen is shedding no feathers.

(2) F=Few Feathers — Only a few feathers are coming out; sometimes at the
throat, but oftener a few in each section.

(3) H=Heavy Molt — The energy of the hen is devoted to producing a new
coat, and large numbers of pin-feathers are present.

378

Bulletin 258.

(4) A=Advanced Molt — The web of the feathers is spread out, but the plumage
is still immature. The sheath is often not all removed from the individual feather,
the web is uneven, the down is not fluffy, and a white feather is likely to look
yellowish.

(5) N. N.=Nearly New — The hen is nearly new feathered, but has a few old
feathers or pin-feathers in some section or sections.

(6) N.=New=Complete Molt. The molt is fully completed, and the feathers
matured.

It will be seen that the total consumption of food, including grit and
shell for the entire experiment, did not vary greatly among the different
flocks (Tables I, 11; Figs. 16. 17). In every case the fed flocks con-
sumed more food
during the experi-
ment than the
starved flocks of the
same age. This
difference occurred
mainly during the
starvation period.
The same general
comparisons are true
when the total
amount of food is
compared, not includ-
ing grit and shell, or
when the actual food
nutrients is compared
(Tables I and II;
Figs. 16 and 17).

The largest quan-
tity of food, includ-
ing shell and grit,
was consumed by the

Fig. 13. — Dipping the fowls in Diamond [Dyes to
observe the molt. Orange, violet, carmine and green
were the most enduring colors.

youngest fowls. For instance, the two flocks of three-year-old fowls
together consumed at the rate of 15,996 pounds, the two-year-olds
16,998 pounds, and the one-year-olds, 19,143 pounds per hundred fowls
during the experiment.

The total quantity of food consumed during the experiment was
greatest with the flocks that laid the most eggs (Tables I and II;
Figs. 16 and 17). The amount of grit and shell eaten in proportion to
the other food consumed in the six pens varied considerably among the
different pens, the lowest amount being (Pen 8), 11.3 lbs, and the highest
(Pen 24), 20.8 lbs grain, to one of grit and shell, showing the large amount
of grit and shell material required by fowls in laying condition.

The Molting of Fowls. Z71

The nutritive ratio, based on the total amount of digestible nutrients
consumed during the experiment by the six pens, varies but slightly
between the flocks of different ages, and even less between flocks of the
same age (Table II). All the rations may be said to be well balanced,
so far as our limited knowledge of what constitutes a properly balanced
ration for egg production may determine.

Influence of method of feeding on gain or loss in weight.

The average weight in the six flocks under observation when the
experiment began (August ii, 1906) was 3.5 pounds. At the close of
the starving period (the first four weeks of the experiment) it was 3.3
pounds. This loss was due entirely to the starved flocks, these hens
having lost an average of .42 pounds each, while the fed hens gained
an average of .08 pounds each. At the end of the molt, January 12,
1907, the starved hens averaged 3.66 pounds and the fed hens 3.74
pounds, a gain above the flrst weight by the starved fowls of .16 pounds
each, and by the fed of .25 pounds each, or .2 pounds average of all
flocks. In every case, in all the flocks, the hens lost in weight during
the process of molt; but many regained the lost flesh before the molt
was completed (Table III and Figs. 16 and 17).

It will be observed that the two three-year-old flocks lost in the first
four weeks .22 of a pound; the two two-year-olds, .09 of a pound; and
the two one-year-olds, .12 of a pound. The starved hens, it will be
noted, lost on an average nearly one-half pound each, or about one-
seventh of their entire weight, equal to about 16%. This loss in weight,
was, however, quickly regained in the following five periods; i.e., by
about the middle of January, when all the flocks increased their weight
to the normal or above, preparatory to the period of increased egg-
production.

Uniformity of molt and time of completion of molt of the starved and

fed flocks.

By examining Table IV it will be seen that about one-half of the
fowls in all of the flocks were beginning to molt in the first period, begin-
ning August nth, and that on September 29th, 1907, about 90% of
the starved hens and 78.8% of the fed hens were molting. By October
27 the percentage of molting was about equal and continued on this
equality to the end of the molt.

In regard to new plumage, on October 27, only 6.3% of the starved
hens and 5.9% of the fed hens were completely refeathered. Novem-
ber 25th only 34.4% of the starved, and 62.2% of the fed hens were

38o

Bulletin 258.

ON

d
o

CO

-<
a

CO

<

Q
o

Ov

Q
<

a,

<

O

Q
O

ti

w

1^
■<

"A

t-i

CO

w

w

o
o

H

ti.

w

Q

o
o

o
o

H

^

CO

O
O

•J

•<
H
O

H

•-3
m

><
H

I ^

N

On

On

H

r^

-«

-H

10

t^

0^

o>

«

1-1

Pen 3

I yr.
Fed

■*

ro

M

On

NO

CO

On

CO

•>^

PO

t^

CO

LO

VO

ON

ro

t^

r^

NO

On

ON

On

On

P)

M

NO

-t

ro

CO

u->

M

LO

00

•^

(-1

ro

M

ro

M

NO

Pt

M

w

00

Tf^"^

rl-

10

PI

PO

NO

PI

On

■*

M

r~.

Wj

On

Pen 2
I yr.
Starve

lA)

On

w->

On

NO

■*

00

P)

PO

LO

On

PO

LO

t^

fO

NO

u-l

t^

>v-)

On

M

CO

P)

P)

t^

CO

0\

M

00

ro

t-i

l^;

CO

■*

tH

PO

P)

PO

PI

"t

W

tH

M

00

-d

00

P)

On

IT}

00

iy->

PO

M

On

LO

ro

Tt-

00

PI •-T'

•

Pen 2

yrs.
Fed

CO

On

r^

M

CO

t>~

NO

LO

P)

On

CO

P)

CO

t^

10

M

PO

M

M

10

r^

On

CO

LO

PI

t^

':^

t^

NO

M

H

M

M

NO

00

M

M

NO

W

PJ

M

0\

M

0.2 -d

r^

vO

M

On

NO

10

PO

10

NO

PO

Tf

t^

NO

00

Pen I

2 yrs.
Starve

ro

t^

10

t^

PI

ON

t^

LO

't

NO

PO

r-.

H

00

NO

^

■*

t^

M

NO

On

t^

•*

PO

P)

NO

(X>

(S

M

M

NO

00

t-i

M

r^

1-1

PI

00
00

-o

M

t^

CO

PI

LO

10

t^

NO

t-~

PI

On

1>

Pen 8

yrs. ol
Fed

■*

On

t^

M

10

00

CO

00

r^

^

LO

PI

P)

r^

PI

NO

PO

10

10

CO

NO

CO

M

^

LO

PI

PI

^

ro

t-t

r^

PO

W

10

PD

•*

M

'i-

M

PO

PO

(N

PI

M

M

00

^

.-2-0

00

^

'^

XO

M

r^

M

On

t^

N

t-~

PI

NO

■'I-

Pen c
yrs.
tarve

M

P)

r~.

P)

NO

r^

w

NO

PO

•*

rh

10

r^

00

^

On

U-)

ro

p)

LO

00

On

LO

P)

00

M

in

NO

p)

M

uo

PO

■*

t-t

ro

M

PI

PI

i>

p)

M

M

t^

w

ro

i)

J3

CO

TS

C

csi

■M

.^

u

fcuO

bC

C

'W<

"O

m

3

M

<-H

_C

ij

u

C

a

• •^

OJ

"a

Q
03
u

H

<-t-l

(14

4J

fe

g

+j

4-3

V

a

C/)

i

4->

1

e

j:3

B

t4H

a

'v

+;

"3

4-»

6

^

1

c

3

cS

^

^

s

<

II

The Molting of Fowls.

381

SE

I

1

■*

vr>

.^2

M

■*

IT)

«^

M M

W

vo

Q

00

a

N

M

•*

00 •*

•♦

10

t~

H

>o

'4-

liO

j^ »^

N

M

2;

M

CT

10

P<~

■<1-

00

LT

M

t-»

<

M

t^

ir

u-

m

•<*■

M

H

"it

10

■*

0\

(4

■*T)'^

•

•

•

•

Qi

ff-S 2^

c

ir-

^

U"

CO fO

Ht

li-

»^

Ht

° &

rO

vo

r'"

00

m t~-

0>

M

C ,: S

fl) " ^

00

ly-

VO

N

c-

vO

t^

ir^

M

l^

-<

M

1— 1

10

vo

^

vo

T)

00

^

t--

M

C< Tf

04

> vo

00

vr>

ir-

CT

10

N

w 00

f

5 t^

'i-

D

<

W-)

N

Lr

CO

00

M to

r<-

>

01

00

00

00

vo

t

OS

w

<

r^

or

3 "■

) f^

M

tJ— .

»o

f

) 1^

> 00

r<-

) to

ly

)

to

>^

«>-^^

•

•

•

•

w

r-

r-

Tf

ir

M VO

xr

5

> 10

00

M

. >

t^

rr

> M

vo

t

10 LO

c<-

5

M

c3 w »-i
S *- <^

rO

vr

V ^

r-

■*

00

■*

01

t^

Q

LO

rr

3 ^

J 01

s

-d

vO

VO

00

'^

vO

M 10

M

V 01

fo

Ah ^
^

cs

M

00

M

ir5 01

M

ir

) 00

M

r^

CO

vo

to

'd-

vO r^

01

M

U-)

f

) "■

) Ov

•*

vo

r^

XT

) M

vo

^

2 2

ro

!3

01

vo

vr

> vo

S-d

vo

M

V

t-

. 00 ON

M

li-

) 10

10

d

Q

>^ <u

00

^

'S

Ov

rt

Ov 0)

M

ly

: vo

't

- . >

\r>

00

CO

V Ov r^

01

M

u oi

M

XT

) vo

tr

S ^

!5

t^

ir

) M

vo

-d

n M

ro

ClJ

&
2 2

^J

. .

c •

(U •

.

•0

C

13 (U

•n

i"^ :

.

i|

•d

u

• c •

<+-!

C •

<u

w"*-

3

a

:£i :

;
>

£i :

0-5

ft

.

. <-t-i
. •

'(/5

3

<4-)
.

>

G

h

'. t '■

1

>

\n

-jJ

'. '55 '.

4)

"55

3

r— *

(U

G

H

.2

13

I

C
c8

-.9 •
. '-i-> .

d
.2

G*

'+j

03

■^^
.-

to

'd
G

3

z

'I

:2 :

3

: 1^

3g

a,

Ov

s
s -

1— t

_C

v>

C

-d

4J

c
I-
C

a

C

4

\ t

* t

-> 4

c

: bo

I -d
■0 a

c.

<*■

a

c
4

• +-) •

• c •

+^ :

5 -^ ^

3 CO > C

■> ^ bo

J 4->

2i

bo c

a-.

! '0

5 ^

3 +-' — ■

^

■ ^

+->

5 w

i C
5 ^

'2

p

G

Si

<

e

c

e

3 (

c

3 O1N.O

^

^

^

i-i

0^ •

382

Bulletin 258.

101 1 1 1 t^ 1 01

«i1^

-rl vO f^ ro N 10

"*

\j ^

CO On u-- ^H <N

C 1-.' rv* M vO 0\ 'O CO H

M

On

1 t^ 1 1 1 1. w 1 rn

J>

r^ _j •* '^ 10 10 M ro

<s

G t-I b 00

cq IT) 00 00 »o

"*

10 Lo CO On 1 (S

CO On 01 CS M

t

10 M 0\

(S

CO

2;

13 r^

NO 00 H ■* NO

0\

t^ t^ ■* <S

■*

H

NO r)- n- NO 1 N

NO 0) NO CO w

M

H

t-- ro

'f

ti

■* On ■* r^ CO

Ov

m

M

c«

H OJ 00

rt ,0 E ^

10 Tj- On • N

•<i-

00 10 CO CO TJ- (S

Q

f^ f5 t3 fo

a; ^^ rt [li

NO N ro rO 1

s

(H rj- M

t»

w

CO

2

00 ro m

o>

t^ CN

NO D NO t^ Tl"

00

■<^ 10 t^ -^ t^

4

CO

H

2:

10 NO On 1 M
00 On On M w

H

ro

HH

K

H

rj- ro 0\

<N

t3

S-d ^

00 ^~ On 10 M On

r>

^

ill s

On On (N i^ NO

in

00 ro CO 1 M

Q

NO On M l-i

't

(72

pL,

ro

fa

1 . 1 . 1

• • • : • a :

a

(H

. •

2

•

t»

ii

ctf

: : ■: : : ^^

•a

<

<<

M^,

3

:•■:•• •• ^^

a.

^1

-^

a. :

b/) •

1

•

S wi

cS

!-■ 1-

0) •

1—1

U2 •

•—1

m

<U 0)

• ■ • ■ • o,>

'-N ■ ■ ; : cs

^ .... a

^ a

n

t3

aoj

w . . . .3+:

-g : : : : §^

3-a

C

•<-'

■^ : : : : V.S

So • • • ^ -2 £

•

• o> • -»-> p»

tuO •0) • • n Ci3 Cj

•S : ^ : 3 6^

l-i

'O .1-. . Pi; ^ ca

0)

3 T? . >N

t>^

4->

— ' . l^ . IJ t-1 "O

wris

4-3

C C 1 • ■- . -H

•0 «

6

^ ■ s : ■ c £ &<
^ "£ -^^ t^ •

at

Jr

6

l«

< d. c3 Ph 2; iE5

»

II

The Molting of Fowls.

w .

Pi Ul

X Q

H 2

O
Ph

Pb
O

o

•<

>

<

Q

o

u
2

O

>
<

00
O

fO

M
M

to
CO

O

to

CO

to

CO

CO
CO

a

vO

CO

O
1^

fO

to
fO

Ov
to

CO

•

to
CO

VO
CO

00
CO

1

O

o

to

o

VO
CO

to

CO

Ov
CO

fO

CO

Q

O
<

>^

o

>

<

M

o

M

O

VO
O

lO

CO

o
to

CO

CO

CO

CO

CO

CO
CO

fo

CO

tH

o

fO

VO

CO

CI

VO

CO

VO
CO

^0

00

1

Hi

00

M
CO

CO

VO

VO
CO

Ov

CO

CO

00
CO

vO
00
fS

Q

O

<!

>^
K
W
Pi

X

>

<

to

fO

to

VO
CO

CO

CI

Ov
CO

o

to

CO

13
Ph

o

o

to

Ov
to

IT)

OO
O

CO

Ov
CO

CO
CO

w
00

4|

to

ro

CO

c<

ON

CO

CO

to

CO

CO

Q

W

<

H »-
"< "

W vO

-I M

O CO

c£
w
o

t/1

►J

Ph

Q

z

"<

Q 5
WW

>-^

PJ

•<

H

Q

01

1-; u)

CI

1h yj

CO cogs

00

to

CO
CO
VO

CO

CO

Ov

ov

CO

C-)

CO

ON

CO

N

O

Cv

o

CO

to

VO

o

CO

Ov

to

CO

to

VO

00
Ov

VO
to

00

Ov

to

^

M

vO
VO

to

vO

Ov

CO

o

o

Q

w
>

<

m

>

<

CO

o
to

■*

cs

H t/3

W " (b r-l

>nO

VO

CO

ON

O

Cl

00

Ov
CO

VO

in

O

a.
I

vO
Ov

CO
00

CO
VO

VO

VO

VO
00

VO

CO

O

VO

CO
vO

VO

to

CO

^
M

CO
O
VO

to

0\

CO

On

u

9

>

o

"Z

1

00

O

O

O

CO

o
Q

o
2

Ov

cj

CJ

Q
I

6

4)

Q

VO

a

o

CO

d

Q

a;
1

a

M

w

u

OJ

CO
C<

00

CO
M

c3

o

Cf

u

a,
<

CI

M

3

Ov

Wi

3

I

CO

^

3

VO

ci

CD

I
o

3
<

O

CO

>

o

V

O

VO

XI

be

>

3^4 Bulletin 258.

completely renewed, while as late as December 30, there still remained
16.6% of the starved and 15.5% of the fed hens which were not in their
new coats.

On the whole it may be said that from August 25 to October 23 the
starved flocks showed a larger percentage of individuals molting. After
that time, there was more molting among the fed hens, though both
flocks completed the molt at about the same time. The molt of the
starved flocks was more uniform, and the hens appeared in better physical
condition at the end of the molt, than the fed hens. This may have
been due to the fact that the fed hens had laid more eggs. After all
flocks had resumed production there was little, if any, difference in their
condition or appearance (Tables IV, V and VI and Figs. 14, 15, 18).

Time required to grow feathers.

It is variously asserted that the time required for the growth of a
body feather on a healthy fowl is approximately forty-two days, while
the time needed to develop the tail is somewhat longer. This refers
to plucked feathers. The usual molting period of a hen cannot, however,
be accurately calculated from this estimate. In the experiment under
consideration, the average time of complete molting in the six flocks,
containing at the end of the molting season 215 hens, was ninety-five
days (Tables IV, V and VI). The average time required to complete
the molt of the three-year-olds was nearly 104 days; of the two-year-
olds, about loi days, and of the one-year-olds, 82 days. The starved
one-year-olds averaged to molt more quickly by 33 days, than did the
fed; the starved two-year-olds were little affected; while the starved
three-year-olds averaged 20 days longer in molting than did the fed
birds. The average time required to complete the molt of the three
starved flocks was 93.8 days; of the three fed flocks 97.4 days. (Table
IV).

All this would indicate that the molting process continues much
longer than is usually supposed, and that there is considerable variation
in the time of beginning the molt between different individuals, and
between flocks of different ages, also a wide variation in the length of
time it requires individuals to complete the molt. One is further im-
pressed with the fact, that, so far as this experiment is concerned, the
method of feeding did not materially alter the normal conditions of
molting, except with the one-year-old fowls.

Following are opinions of competent authorities on the subject of
feather development.

"I have found that the longer before the molting season you molt the

The Molting of Fowls.

385

fowl, the longer it takes the
feathers to grow in again.
Have seen a fowl picked in
May and be in full feather in
August, the small featliers
growing first, then the wing
and then tail feathers, and
then I have seen others picked
and all the feathers but the tail
come in and that did not come
in until the last of October.
We often molt the crest of the
Polish and they would come
in perfect in three months.
And then I have seen a Light
Brahma molted in August and
in four weeks have a perfect
plumage." — M. M. Davenport.

"When feathers get broken,
if removed, six weeks will iully
replace. If a tail gets smashed,
remove all, in four weeks it
will look well, in six weeks be
perfect. When in full molt
and all feathers are growing at
same time, 8 weeks is as short
time as perfection will be
reached. But single, broken
feathers, 5 to 6 weeks will re-
place them. In preparing for
exhibition, if five weeks before,
all broken feathers and mate
feathers to broken ones are re-
moved they will come out even
and look fine." — I. K. Felch.

("Mate feathers" are feathers
in similar position in the same
section on opposite sides of the
fowl.)

"During the fall and early
winter when the weather is
favorable for their growth, a
main tail, sickle, primary or
secondary feather will mature
in six weeks. The hackle and
saddle require at least eight
weeks." — D. J. Lambert.

"I have pulled the tails of
Cochin females and have had
them grow so that the points

13

8

s

•*-*

^
^

?N

<5

-tt

to

i

(a

lO

t

*T>.

-a

tj

■^

^

^

^

•4^

t-A

8

V

^

^

^

K

4:^

-0

8

t3

00

.K4

Q

^

s

8

8

"iJ

•<s>

S^

-te

1

tJ

•*^

l!t>

T-»

S

ta

-S

K

-0

^

-0

V.

Q

(to

to

-0

Q

►St

c^

8

8
1

^

8

tJ

-0

>+^

^

IH

fe
^

to

8

8

Q

^

■5

8
1

>:

'«

c

t*

Q

•^

^

-o

ts

~o

e

t»

^

K

t3

8

tt,

•fS.

i

^

8

00"

to

8

■^

^

s

C3

to

a

c^

^

^^-^

•*s>

■ *

■♦.»

"13

to

Q

^

5

^

^

■»«*

s

1^

to

K

^

^

^■^

-8

«

10

t

1

■;g

ci:

to

c

8

^

s'

^

■§

>-

"to

"^

a

s.

H

<»

tS)

?^Sfe:

386

BULLRTIX 258.

TiiF. ^roLTixc OF Fowls. 387

of the tail feathers would show about an inch beyond the cushion in
twenty-one days, and some have taken twenty-seven days to grow
an equal length. Cochin Bantams will grow their main tail feathers
so as to protrude beyond the cushion feathers in three weeks. Mr.
Wm. McNeail of Canada, told me that it took a Hamburg over six
weeks to grow decent length sickles, but of this I cannot absolutely
say." — T. F.McGrew.

"About three months, as I recall, beforehand, I chanced to take a
bird with a tail so badly broken that I pulled every main and covert
as well as the sickle feathers. They came in nicely and at the time of
the show were two-thirds mature." — Mrs. Geo. E. Monroe.

The quantity of food consumed increases during egg-production.
That the number of eggs produced bears a close relationship to the
amount of food consumed, is strikingly shown in Fig. 16, A and B,
where it will be seen that the hens which laid the largest number of eggs
consumed the most food. Periods of large egg-production always
appear to be periods of increased food consumption and vice versa.

An increase in food consumption slightly precedes and over-laps the period

of egg-production.

It will be noticed that the increase in the amount of food consumed
precedes, by a few weeks, the increase in production, showing that the
fowl fortifies her body by storing up the nourishment from which to pro-
duce eggs (Fig. 16, A, B and C).

Weight of hen is greatest preceding heaviest egg-production.

A glance at the plotted curves, Fig. 16, comparing (B), the weight of
the fowls during each period, and (C) the per cent egg-production for
each period will indicate how uniformly the curve showing increase
and decrease in production follows the curve of increase and decrease
in weight.

The youngest fowls ate the most food and laid the most eggs.

A comparison of the amount of food consumed, the eggs laid, and the
weight of flocks of different ages (Fig. 16, A, B and C) shows that the
youngest fowls ate the most food and produced the largest number
of eggs.

The per cent egg-production varies each month, according to tJte seasons,

with remarkable regularity.

This is strikingly illustrated in the plotted curves of production dur-
ing the 1 6 periods of 28 days each, for the six flocks of fowls of different

Bulletin 258.

Q

w

Mau q,u3D aaj

Os

Os

Os

Os
VO

A1.9U

OS

00

M

10

OS

OS

VO

M

CO

OS

OS

M

SO

SO

.

CO

CO
CO

ro

VO

CO

:tu9D aaj

to

00
fO

00

M

0)

SO

CO

OS

M

SO

10

VO

so

01
VO

22

2 yrs.

old

Suiu
-inSaq ;snC

o\

OS

10
OS

00
OS

OS

so

00

M

to

M

Sui;ioui

10

10

00

in

VO

00
fO

so

CO

00

CO
00

OS

cs

so
OS

CO

Os
00

1/1

SU9fI

ui jaquin^

VO

M
M

M

<N
M

M

M

M

M
M

M
M

M

M
M

M
M

M

M
M

c

A\3u :^uao J9(j

fO

so

OS

00

so

M9U

CO
VO

CI

so

Os

Os
CO

VO

Q

W
>

:;|ouj
paou'BAp'B ;;u90 Sd^

CO

CO

00

Os

O

VO

to

CO

so
CO

t^ n

:^uaD J9(£

CO

O

M

SO

00

OS

Os

SO

O

VO

O
so

O
SO

VO

SO

VO
CO

cs

Os

CO
CO

so

VO

U3 ,

osv-«2

CI

Suiu
-uiSaq t^sn[

to
00

00

Os

Os

so

Os

o

C)

>\ o
to

Sui^oui
:^U9^ J9<£

so

Os

Os

10

o

00

so
00

o

Os

o

Os

CO

Os

so
Os

OS
00

(U

so

SU9J

UI J9quin|«j

W
<

9
<

00

10

B

a

00

Os

SO

ll

OJ
X^
O
■t-i

o

o

o

The Molting of Fowls.

389

00

M

M

M

M

CO

Ov

00
ro

00

LO

00

Ov
On

00

00

00

lo

C3N

On

M

M

CO

•

ro

0)

CO

•*

^

w

M
10

10

•
10

On
CO

CO

ro

NO

M

to

00

LO

On

On

00

NO

On
lO

On

10

M

to

M

OC

C

►-

OC
C

OC

c

OC

c

^

c

NC

C

H

>

NC

c

NO

t-l

M I NO

■* On

to

CO

Ti-

ro

CO
CO

On

On

NO

ro

to

00

On

NO

•*
■*

CO

r^

o

00

CO

NO

CO

to

to

PI

r^

't

On

NO

00

M

O
On

CO
10

NO

PI

to

CO

o>

NO

CO

00

On
O

B

>
o

NO

On
O

O

c^

NO <3

o

00

NO

NO

NO

to

to
P)

Ov

NO

CO
p)

o

CO

u

Xi

o

Q

c^

NO

p»

C
(4

390.

Bulletin 258.

o

I— t

o

w

o

M

Q
O
X
H

U

a
a
w
li.

PQ
O

H
O

Q

Q

•<

EO

»
O

o
o

10

»^

■<

o
o

•J

<

9061 'II Sny

9061 'II "Sny
ut s-s-o; sSbjsav

£

re
10

00

£

OS

00

o

b£

M

^061 'SI -UBf

00
vO

10

<r>

CO

o

00

fO

jnoj ;sjg jo pua

£

00
o

jnoj ^sjij JO pua

%TS SSOJ aSBJ3AV

a

M

10

O

sj[9aM jnoj
5.sjg JO 9Sop q.B
:mSi3M 9Sbj9Av

00

Ov

00

o

ro

O

00

00

00

to

00

in

fo

:Houi JO uoi:j9^d
-UIOD 'iV :v^§i9A\

UI UIbS 9§BJ9AY

£

vO

^^oui JO uoi:;9td
-UIOD ■^-e cmSi9Av

Ul SSO[ 9SBJ9AY

'I-

vo

ro

CO

ca

o

in

o

:;qS[9Av ui r^so^
qoiqAi :iU9D a9j

^

00

CO

CO

Ov

ro

10

:;i{§i9A\ UI P9uibS

<200

^

vo

•*

ro

in

:}pui JO 9sop :^B

:mSl9A\ 9SBJ9AV

£

era

o

fO

vO

00

fC

10

O

vo

00

^[OUI

JO §uiuui39q %v

:il{§I9A\ 9SbJ9AV

Ov

C ro

10

»-(
ro

vo

O

ro

00

00

■<*■

0\

Sui;[oui
sXbp 92bJ9AV

vo

01

o

vo

00

Ov

vo

Ov

vo

00
Ov

o
p

n

en

^

tfl

TS

Ml

^ >

^

N ^*

N cr

[/

C

CJ

c/

C/1

[/

'C

t:

cS

f

t:

T3

I5

. 'c

c

t;

cc

C

C

"o

c

' »-

I 1-

< rO

•d

k

1-

Ih

1-

. c

n

(U

c

0)

n

; a

a

u-
^

a

<L

4)

a

) >

^ >

>

^ >

^ >»

^

1 1-

n

1 M

c

N T

^ h

H

a

c

10

Li

1-

< P

' fi

p

1

C

5 c

: c

: <J

c

: c

: c

C

)

1

>

i a

> 0)

CI

H CL

4 d

^

u

< &

- D.

. 1

CO

o

O

<v

bO

>

The Molting of Fowls.

391

CO

a
<

W

w

b

o

w

o
o

I— (

H
O

»
<!

Q

Q

■<
en

o

O

o

C/]

2

<!
O

o

a
•J

9061 'II -Sny

cs

00
10

10

M

M

tuojj :ii^§;3Av

£ :

Ul UWS 9SBJ3AV

9061 'II "Sny

00

ro

mojj q.t[§i9A\.

fi •

*

Ul SSOl 9§Bj:3AY

cc

oc in

00

Tt

r^

10

M

^061 'SI -UBf

r^

C> 00

vO

00

!>.

10

^f

in

£ •

:^qSl9AV 92BJ9AV

ro ro

c*-

ro

ro

CO

ro

m

S>I99A\.

t— t

M

jnoj :^SJ^ JO pu9

£ :

113 invS 9SBJ9AV

S:>[99AV

s

10

jnoj isji; JO pu9

£ •

•

q.B S-yO; 9§HJ9AY

sj|^99.\i. jnoj

■*
^

CO \o

CO

CO

VO

ISjy. JO 9SOp ;T3
:iqSl9AV 9§HJ9AV

£ ■

ro rf

) <M

fO

ro

C-l

ro

CO

:^^oui JO uoii9yd

M

-UIOD IV JHSI9AV

£ :

Ul UIUS 9SBJ9AY

::^pui JO uoi^^g^d

01

M rr

)

-uioo :;b jqSi9AV

£ •

*

Ul SSO^ 92HJ9AV

-* (N

t-

r^

t^

t^

10

M

:iL[Sl9AV Ul JSO^

^^

M ^

f I^

fO

■*

o\

HOiq.M 4.U90 a9j

r^ ^

« r

Tl-

■*

■*

to

"<t

i-»

\0 n

H ro

N

"?

VO

:^qSi9AV Ul pguiuS

^=^

W P

1 <■

r^

in

•+

vO

qOiqM lUSO J9(J

M >-

H <

3 •*

m

CD

ro

CO

r- r

<■

-)

vO

VO

ro

'^

in u

t

■0 T|-

fO

ro

PO

«o

:}.XOlU JO 9SOp JH

£^

:jq§l9A\. 9§BJ3AY

(■0 r

r

■0 ro

pr>

ro

ro

fO

:^pui

)_,

00 ■<

t '

J-i N

00

VO

00

t»

r- a

3 ►

-1 M

M

'd-

■<*•

Tt

JO guiuuiSgq ^b

£ ■

4—1 c^

ro f

■0 ri

fO

ro

ro

ro

^q§I9AV 92BJ9AY

vO

v<

3

■* ►-

ro

10

VO

Suyipui

rt '■'^^

<r; (

*5

N

M

10

00

N

sX-ep 9§BJ9AY

^ M

f

3

H M

M

VO

Ov

M

t/i

t/)

ir.

"is

"^

13

•

/I ri

tn

X/i

'0

n

2

2

'0

2

u

v^

"o

w

"o

rt

c3

oi

(U

M 4J

0)

C!i

ro

>-. M

^ ;

>^

M

^

>>

t/)

^^

r<5 Fi '

t3 •

N

U5

13

w

^

13

-^

OJ

^

D

l^

"

>

>

>

2

U '"-

V-i

>^^

MH

cc

^

•-^

*" t:

ci -O

qn

cd

l3

03

13

a>

-1^

(U

+->

<u

<u

-t-3

,""

bJ3

M <^

bZ)

w

u--

W)

&

H

CO

>

>

10

>

C

d

<

c c

<

C

c

<

<u

<u

a; 0)

Q)

D

P.

Oh

fl, Pu

Ph

P.

1

39^ Bulletin 258.

ages (Fig. 16, C). From August 11, the beginning of the experiment,
there was a gradual decline in production with all the flocks until the
latter part of December. From this time production increased rapidly
until the latter part of April, when it remained practically stationary
until the middle of May ; then it declined gradually until the close of the
experim.ent, November 8. These observations agree with similar ones
made in other experiments.*

All of the above principles are clearly illstrated in Fig. 16, 17 and 18,
A, B and C, where the starved and fed flocks are compared.

Egg-production during the molt.

The fact that hens, though well fed, lost weight in the process of molt
would indicate something of the strain imposed on them by the pro-
duction of new feathers. This is more noticeably shown by the falling
off in egg-production (Tables IV, V, VI and VII, Figs. 16, 17 and 18).
The trap-nested hens, pen 24 (starved), and pen 25 (fed), averaged only
12 eggs laid while molting. Only three per cent of the hens laid in the
heavy molting season and only one of the 65 trap-nested hens produced
more than an occasional egg during that time (Figs. 16, 17 and 18).

It is apparent that, as molting increased, egg-production decreased
(Fig. 18, A and B, and Tables IV, V and VI). This was true almost
without exception with both starved and fed flocks during each period.
It was strikingly true during the starvation period. While some of the
hens continued to lay after beginning to molt, and a few began to lay
before completing their new coat, no hen continued to lay during the
entire molting period.

Influence of prolificacy on the time and rapidity of molt.
Persistent layers, unless broody, appeared to begin the molt within
a week after the last egg, and were usually in heavy molt in less than
two weeks. Those beginning to molt after October first shed more
quickly and re-feathered more quickly than those molting earlier, espe-
cially to the stage of advanced molt, when their bodies were well protected
(Tables IV, V and VI, and Figs. 18,19 and 20). Hen Number 61 (Figs.
19 and 20) was a good example. It was 56 days from the time she
began to shed until she had grown a complete coat of feathers.

Influence of hroodiness on the molt.
Broodiness influenced the time of molt to a great degree. In this
experiment, a number of hens became broody, and were allowed to sit

* Bulletin 249, Cornell Experiment Station, "Four Methods of Feeding Pullets.''

The ]\Ioltixg of Fowls.

393

lbs.

Fig. 1 6. — A comparison of one, two and three year olds per period of 28 days,
of both starved and fed fowls. A^C onsumption of food. "B^Weight of fowls.
C=Percentage egg production. Note that an increase or decrease in weight is
usually preceded by corresponding increase or decrease in the amount of food con-
sumed by each flock, and that an increase or decrease in per cent egg production is
preceded by a corresponding increase or decrease in weight of each flock. It will
also be observed that there is great uniformity between the various flocks each
period as to increase or decrease in food consumption, weight and per cent egg pro-
duction.

394

BULLETIX 258.

J906

Mods Auq.ll 5ep.8 Oct.6 Wov.4 Dec.2 Dec.^O MlUMh IlQr?3 Apra) tldylS MIS Jiil,13 AuqlO Sep7 Oct.5

pXc 5ep.70ct5 N0V.5 Deci Ded9 Dec^6 febi^ Hdr^^ Apd9 M(iyl7 JaRl4 Jiil.irAug9 Sep.S Oct4 M

'^ i /^3>^ 5 6 7 8 9 JO _ _/;^-/<'_ /J J^ J5 i6
^700'

Fig. 17. — A comparison of starved and fed flocks, by periods of 28 days. A=
Consumption of food. B^lVeights of fowls in pounds. C=Per cent production
of eggs.

Fed flocks — Pens 8 (3 years old), 19 (2 years old) and 24 (i year old).

Starved flocks — Pen 5 (3 years old), 22 (2 years old) and 25(1 year old).

Note that the same general observations as to the increase or decrease in the food con-
sumed, weight and percentage egg-production applies in the same manner as observed
in Fig. 16.

Till-: Molting of Fowls. 395

for periods varying from three or four days to four weeks. In no instance
did a hen shed more than a few feathers while broody. Some hens which
had begun to molt and had subsequently become broody, ceased molting
until broken of broodiness. When broken up they began to molt quickly,
and shed and re-feathered rapidly and completely (Table VIII).

The hens in the starved flocks showed considerably more broodiness
than did those in the fed flocks. During the experiment there was,
among the starved flocks, an average of 67 individuals broody for each
flock, having an average loss per flock of 459 broody days, as compared
to an average, among the fed flocks, of 38 broody individuals, having an
average loss for each flock of 320 broody days.

It will be seen (Table VIII) that with the fowls of different ages there
were all told, 66 three-year-olds broody, 140 two-year-olds and no one-
year-olds. The days lost were: three-year-olds, 396 days; two-year-olds,
1,140 days; one-year-olds, 802 days. Just why the two-year-old hens
should have been more broody than fowls of the other ages is not under-
stood.

Mortality.

The mortality in all the pens was large. It averaged 18.8% among
the starved and 20% among the fed flocks. The two flocks of three-
year-olds had a mortality of 21%; the two-year-olds, 16%, and the one-
year-olds, 20%. The figures are for the entire experiment of one year
and 90 days, and included all the hens in all the pens. There was no
especial selection as to vigor when the experiment began and no sub-
stitution of strong fowls for those which became weak or died during
the progress of the experiment.

Influence of method of feeding on egg-production and molt.

Production is the real test of a method of feeding. The starved
hens averaged 17.3 eggs from the close of their individual molt to April
first, while the fed hens averaged 16.6 eggs during the same period; an
average in all the flocks of 16.9 eggs. The yearly production was,
however, not in favor of the starved hens, which gave only 102 eggs
per year while the fed hens laid 119 eggs each in the same period

It is considered important that hens should quickly resume production
after molt. In this experiment, the average days after molt before
production began, was, in the trap-nested flocks (65 hens), 39 days
after the completion of the individual molt. The starved hens began
to lay in 35 days and the fed hens in 44 days, or nine days later. .

396

Bulletin 258.

"a •J4 S2

«0

s

to

a

8
o
</>
o

lO

a

K

-Si

>- CI

S
.s "^ -s?

Is- '^

C3 - -Si

(J

■13

6jO

a

a

S

■^

^t

C-)

^

K

t

"<3

6n

P

^

60

^

^
M

a

6/1

-

«y>

6/1

On

tj

<a

*~*

»«

!!•>

a

to

to

a

^

ta

%^

a ex, ^'

-a

a •

to -Q

a °

to

CO

O O

t1

^1

to

T1

n

ttt

ti->

to

!-

to

t^

a

t

a

a

5i

to

>V)

a

to

Ts

)^

<5

tk)

>.

A^<

^

PC4

The Molting of Fowls. 397

Relative influence of time of molt one season on time of molt the following

season.

The question naturally arises whether hens tend to molt at the same
season in successive years. Careful observations of trap-nested hens
(one-year-olds) in the molting seasons of 1906 and 1907 showed that,
of both flocks (65 hens), 78.5 per cent molted at practically the same
season in two successive years. Where the hens had been fed in the
same way during the two years, 87.5 per cent molted at about the same
time. The hens which had been starved one year to hasten the molt,
and fed after the usual method the next year, did not molt as early the
second year as the first. In other words, the so-called "forced molt"
held good for only one season, and possibly delayed molting somewhat
the second year.

It is apparent from the plotted curves of percentages of (A) egg-
production and (B) hens molting, that early molting causes early decHne
in the production and that late molting tends to postpone the time of
decline (Fig. 21). This figure also serves to indicate that the older
fowls have a tendency to molt later than the younger. Notice also that
the fed flocks began to molt considerably later during their second year,
1907, than they did during their first year, 1906. Inasmuch as the
same tendency was observed with both starved and fed flocks it would
appear that the lateness of molting in the second year might be due
more to the age of the fowls than to the methods of feeding.

Forty-five per cent of the starved hens began to lay at about the same
time in 1907 as they did in 1906. With the fed hens it was about sixty-
three percent. In 1906 (the year of starving) seventy-nine percent of
the starved hens began laying earlier than in 1907, and the entire starved
flock averaged 24 days earlier in 1906 (Fig. 21).

Hens that shed late take less time to molt.

In these observations it was found that the hens, from all pens, which
began to molt before September 15th, averaged 108 days molting,
while those which began after that date molted in 81 days. This con-
dition seems, in the case of the one-year-olds, to be modified by the
method of feeding. Of the fed one-year-olds, the hens which molted
early averaged 35 days longer in molting than those which molted later;
but of the starved one-year-olds, those which shed early averaged two
days less in molting than those which shed later. The eight hens, from
both of these pens, which began molt after October first averaged 82
days molting. In every case where the molt appeared to be uninfluenced

398

Bulletin 258.

w
w

CO

►J

M

^

fa

fe

CO

Q

Ix.

a

2

H

><

n

D

Q

a

CM

<

z

f-

W

2;

^
tu

w

a
z

O

Cb
>

<

O

CO

'Ph

CO

<

>^

o

>

1'^

C/3 >

CO

ci

<

>

CO o

o

CN

CO

O

CO

CO

o
o

CO

CO

o

CO

10

o

O

^

10

VD

00

00
cs

0\

CO
O

O

10

CO

vO

0\

CO

CO
fO

to
00

00

00

10

VO

CO
O

00

O

LO

00

to

0)
CO

00
o

CO
CO

CO

o

CO

10

VO
Ov

CO
CO

o
10

VO

Ov

CO

CO
CO

00

VO
CO

CO

o

to

vO

00

CO

to

00

CO
10

o

VO

Ov
10

VO

10

CM

CO
VO

o

<3v

CO

10

Ov
10

10

Ov

00

o

VO

VO
10

Ov
to

VO

CO
to

00
to

VO
to

VO

CO

10

O
VO

O

VO

VO

10
to

o

VO

Ov
CO

CO

vO

to

tT 00
VO ^

o

CO

o

VO

CO

to

Ov

O
Ov

to

CO
CO

to

VO

cs O
to to

CO

o

to

o

to

00

VO
to

00

CO

00

to

VO

00

VO

CO

p)

to

to

10

CO

VO
Ov

to

00
Ov

O
to

o

VO

to

VO

Ov
CO

CO

Ti-

to

CO

Per cent Egg Production of Starved and

Fed Fowls by Periods of 28 Days.

(See also Fig. 16).

Q

0)

>
<

M

Tt

vO

04

p)

M
PI

M

VO

VO

VO

CO

M

00

PI
CO

VO
to

to

PO

M

VO

00

to

P)

to

VO

to
CO

vO

p)
to

M

Tl-

P)
CO

to

CO

to

00

to

to

PI

PO

M

PO

P4
CO

CO

CO
to

to

PI

CO
VO

Ov
PO

Tt

VO

VO
to

00
T}-

VO

Ov
to

!3 "=

to

CO
CO

VO
<3v

00

M

CO
pq

M

M

CO

P)
P)

PI
PI

M

to

PO
10

VO

PI
Ov

PI
10

VO

to

to

U to

00 cogs
>^0

Ov

00

•

M

CO

CO

M

M

0^
00

10

to

VO

to

VO

M

PO

Ov
to

00
p^

VO

P)
00

VO
to

PO
M

PI
to

PO

Q
W
>

<
H
(XI

<

VO
CO

'^

VO
Pf

M
M

Tl-

PO

Ov

PI

to

Tl-

00

'^

PO

M

00

PO

CO

•
VO
to

00

to

00
00

PI
to

■<1-
to

00

VO

Tj-

>~.o

t-t
00

CO
CO

CO

M

to

PO

VO

CO
Ov

Tl-

to
CO

to

P)

00
00

PI

CO

VO

M

CO

Ov

CO
to

M

00

to

.00

VO

Ov

to

P)

M

U (0

M " <b '-I

00

VO
Ov

to

CO

p)

•

M

00

P4

VO
Ov

PI

00

vC
CO

Ov

00

vO

VO
VO

CO

Tj-
to

PI

00
to

VO

to

Tj-

•2 ="

to

0)

CO

to

M

VO

VO

Tl-

M

CO

VO

1— J

CO

CO

to

PI

M

to

00
PO

to

to

CO

1

u

d
1

<

to

1

CO

d

CO

>

'^.

1

VO

4J

CJ

PO

t-4

CJ

Q

1

>

Ov

PI

d

Q
1
PI

6

Q

to

vd
p)

c
a

CO

6

Q

VO

PI

Si

1

PI

C

P)

PI

u

<%
1

CO

p)

Ph
00

Ov

-'
l-i

<
1
CO

N

1^

Oj

>>

1

PI

u

a
<

■<1-

<U

c
d

»— >

1

00

M

a

M

>^

"d

V

to

»-»

D

c
d
►—I

p)

M

Ov

d

<

1

CO

M

"d
•— »

The MoLTixr. of Fowls.

399

CO

lO

t^

n

o

O

^

00

00

ro

PO

00

tr>

PI

N

lO

lO

o

00

00

CD

o

00

P)

r-

^

o

<*

pi

fO

p)

U-,

^

o\

M

^

o

I>

ir,

00

PI

so

ro

M

N

r--

o

t^

N

t^

"

Ov

H

O

lO

PI

i>

M

M

N

o

VO

■*

VO

t^

o\

PO

1>

o

r-

lO

t^

CO

M

«

to

PI

O

o

00

^

VO

in

CO

PI

VO

a

Hi

N

t-H

00

lO

a

o^

PI

M

H

lO

o

N

«

(N

ro

\o

t-t

ro

lo

o

PO

O

o

r^

•<t

ro

N

U)

CO

o

1>

O

rr

o\

HI

M

vO

o

PI

PO

PO

t^

PI

t>-

lO

r^

CO

IN

CO

t-i

N

lo

to

o

00

00

CO

00

PI

t^

>*

o

-:^

PI

n

o

so

-t

VO

r^

Ov

CO

1>

O

t^

lO

1>

PO

M

«

ro

o

HI

ro

u->

On

PO

VO

PI

t^

■*

ro

N

m

PI

00

m

t>-

o\

l-l

'?

t^

M

HI

■<j-

PI

M

(S

O

lO

-+

a

M

r^

o>

t^

lO

CO

PI

VO

tr>

"

<s

VO

PI

o

o

00

^

VO

lO

00

PI

VO

PI

t-t

«

lO

ro

VO

t>

O

'T

Ot

HH

M

vd

*

1

o .
1-

4J

a

0)

CO

>

ent p
year

yj

o

o

1

o

O
1

1

lO

U It

<

a

o

O

o

•".2

ri o

Tf

lO

1 vO

>

W

M

I -

<

a
■J

<

CO

w
«

H

o

>-)

hI

<

o

CO

<
ffl

2

w

o
o

o

CO
CO

a

a
o
o

OS

pq

o
z

•<

><
f-

13

•<

o

1 CT

a;
bo

^ 1"=

M

a

•

u

c

CO

<u

c

p

PO

>

PI

c*

<

u

PI

13

^

a

1^

■)

lO JJT)

cs

rs.

PI i^v-^

P'
PI

■3 OC

•<J-

M

w

Ph

Ov

^

C<

M

M

00
HI

CO

P]
HI

HI ■'J

CO

PI

*

03

w

PI

'C

r^

00 (U -=<

00

HI

VO
r-

M

CO
PI

CO

cd

<D

HI

TJ

VO

bo

CO

rt

c

:> t^

S

00

VO

ID

HI

C

N

>

w

■)

<

Ti

T

OJ

U

^

T)

00

n3

PI i^-^

t>

P

PI

VO

Q

HI

^

W

>

<

03

O
PI

HI

s -a

VO

?S2

OO
c

■5 Ov

PI

03

.oS2

o
o

.o

PI

xo

PI

PI

■*

CO

>.

-d

o

o

u

/~

- m

-H

1/

to

N C

n

o3

r

If

3

H

>

^ Id

y-

>

C

' t3

t/

c

>

1— 1

4-

C

14

0)

CT

t:

^

t

c

s

c

3

^

PC

;z:

400

Bulletin 258.

^

by the feeding, the late molting hens took less time to produce a new
coat of feathers than did those which molted earlier.

Hens that molt early lay more early winter eggs.
The hens molting before September 15, began to lay 39 days after
the completion of the individual molt; those molting after September
15 began to lay in 43 days after they were completely refeathered. The
hens which molted before September 15 averaged 17 eggs each from
the completion of their individual molt to April 2nd, 1907, while those
molting later gave 14 eggs each in the same period.

Hens that tnolt late lay more eggs during the year.

Although the early molting hens laid more winter eggs, they did not

lay more eggs during the
year. Those beginning to
molt before September
15th, averaged 103 eggs,
and those molting later
averaged 126 eggs. The
eight hens which, in

1906, began to molt after
October ist, laid in that
year 142 eggs each. Two
of the eight hens died in

1907, but the other six
gave 129 eggs each in 1907,
their third year of laying.
The best hen, Number 61,
laid 213 eggs in 1906 and
175 eggs in 1907, and was
the last one to molt in
1906 and 1907 (Figs. 19
and 20). Thus, the later
molting hens consumed
less time in molting, and
laid more eggs during the

r
1-

■•-*♦

Fig. 19. — Hen No. 61. In \full laying and not
molting, October 12, 1906. Record 2 it, eggs in
261 days, January 24 to October 12, 1906.
The best laying hen in the experiment and the
last one to molt.

year; the early molting hens began to lay more quickly after molt, and
gave slightly greater winter production.

The early molting hens averaged 3 eggs more in winter when eggs
were high than did the late molting hens. For 100 hens this would
mean 300 eggs, or 25 dozen. With eggs at 35.5c per dozen (average

The INToLTTNG of Fowls,

40T

for that period in 1907) this would make an additional profit of $8.87
in favor of early molting, if the additional amount of food consumed
on account of the increased production is not considered.

The late molting hens gave 23 more eggs each during the year than
the early molting hens. For
100 hens this would be 2300
eggs, or 1 9 1. 6 dozens. At
29.3c per dozen (average
price from August 1906 to
August 1907) this would
amount to $56.13 extra
profit for the late molting
hens, if extra amount of
food consumed is not con-
sidered. The comparative
profit of the late molting
hens over the early molting
hens, without considering
extra food consumed,
would be $56.13 as against
$8.87 =$47.26. If one
should judge from this
record, he might conclude
that the best laying hens
are often latest to molt;
therefore, if condition of
feeding, age of stock and
environment are similar,
the one who kills the late
molting hens may be kill-
ing the best producers.

Fig. 20. — Hen No. 61 in Heavy Molt, November 28,
1906. Observe the old primary and secondary
wing feathers still unshed, while the new body and
tail feathers are partially developed and the neck
feathers well grown. Would you have killed her
because she molted late if you had not known her egg
record?

Feather -making demands nitrogenous food.
It is generally conceded that the molting period is the most trying
time of a fowl's life. In nature, the shedding of the feathers and the
growing of a new plumage apparently occurs in a period of rest follow-
ing one of production. This period of molting normally comes with
regularity at a certain season of the year and presumably is primarily
;i matter of inheritance, and only secondarily due to environment.
Environment may, however, modify, i. c. hasten or retard, the natural
process. Whatever the condition influencing the molt may be, it appears

402

Bulletin 258.

that the demands of the body for nourishment from which to grow new
plumage is great. This is made apparent by the chemical composition
of the feathers, and also by the fact that only the strongest hens appear
to be able to produce feathers and eggs at the same time, even for a
short period. Table IX shows clearly by comparison the relative
amounts of nitrogen and mineral matter contained in the body, the
eggs and the feathers of the average 100 Leghorn fowls.

It may be reasoned that it takes nearly a year to grow the body of a
hen, that young growing stock eat more per pound weight than mature
hens not in production, and that a year's production of eggs is estimated
to contain twice as much nitrogen as a hen's body. We also know that

J906

//

Ouausr
ja 35

J

3epremde/

8 15 22

so

e

Ocioi)er

J3 30

37

-#

1/ ja 25

i 9 76

33

30

J K 79

^6

W Cent 90

•/«

'^

/,

■V

1

J

60

Sra

mfk

aft

2^

■-■■

•'

V

1

70

-m

'^t>

:

/

^

"€"

■■>&

77

■■

J

60

,j-

,■'*.,

/

f^

rce.

tn

Wy/fj

•.

so

..-•■

--/..

%~

f^A

3-^

ira/

f^m

40

iO

^

'f\

'"'».

%

SO

%

■■■• /<

W

JO

H^

X"

"■■'/^

#■

.._

/

^erc

M

''e/rr

r^f.

•^m/c

c//a/

f

'•

''-^

N^

-v.-,7

,,--

■--

"■■-..

-''"

■-..,

JOO
90

/

X^

^^

■^

\

80

/

y

^

c

X

W

\

70

/

'^/^

'/■Cfi

7r/\

Vfy/i^

?

\

\

60

/

\

/

/

/

\

\

SO

^/

<

"^

/

\

40

U

^

S^

^

/*y

S5

rec

/

\

30

y-

%

\

\

20

N

906

\

\

JO

\

\

J''

^Cfi/.

A

WC/i

vt

\

>

:__

■X.

^^

^/

^

irr

—

-^

Fig. 21. — A comparison of per cent Molting and per cent Egg Production in two
successive years between flocks 24 (starved) and flock 25 (Jed). Trapnested hens.
Pens 24 starved and 25 fed, Periods of 7 days.

=Starved flock.

=Fed flock

Note again the regularity with which the per cent egg production increases or decreases
as the per cent molting increases or decreases. Also observe that the molting was
later the second year than it xvas the first year, and that the starving process did
not materially influence the time of molt the follozving year.

Till-: MoLTiXG OF Fowls.

403

a hen will eat much more food while in heavy laying than when not in
production. In contrast to this, the new coat of feathers, produced
in about one-fourth of a year, contains one-fifth as much nitrogen as
her body, and one-tenth as much nitrogen as her yearly egg product.
Since the increase in body, and the production of eggs, demand an
increased supply of food, we may safely conclude that the renewal of
plumage will require a liberal, easily digestible food supply, presumably
rich in nitrogen; especially so when the molt comes at the end of an
• exhausting period of production.

It is worthy of note in this connection to compare the amount of lime
found in the flesh, the eggs, and the feathers of the average 100 Leghorn
fowls. (Table IX.) While the feathers do not appear to contain any
considerable amount of lime, the eggs, on the other hand, contain about
ten times as much mineral matter as the body of the fowl. There
appears to be about 13^ pounds of mineral matter in the bodies of 100
Leghorn hens and 125 pounds in the eggs which they normally produce.

Table IX. — Estimated Nitrogen and Mineral Matter in the Body,
Feathers and Eggs per 100 Fowls.

Pen

Age

Method

of
Feeding

Nitrogen lbs

Ash lbs
Mineral Matter

Body

Eggs

Feathers

Body

Eggs

Feathers
Lime
only

5

3 yr-

Starved

12.86

l3.02

2.38

14.17

9936

.023

8

(1

Fed

13.28

21 .87

2.45

1463

120.58

.024

19

2 yr.

Starved

II. 31

23 -54

2 .09

12 .40

129. 76

.020

22

<i

Fed

11.66

24.03

2-15

12.84

13244

.021

24

I yr.

Starved

11-55

22.93

2.13

12.73

126.40

.020

25

u

Fed

II .69

2587

2 . 16

12.98

142.59

.021

This table was computed on the first 13 periods of the experiment,
covering a period of 364 days. It was assumed that the hen shed and
replaced her entire plumage once in this time. The quantity of feathers
per hen was estimated at 4.53% of the total weight of the fowl.* Only

* Theses on " Comparative .Anatomy of Various Breeds of Fowls to Show Type
Differences," by C. A. Rogers and H. C. Pierce, Cornell University, 1905 and 1906,

404

Bulletin 258.

the lime content in the feathers was used in computing the mineral
content of feathers. The analyses used were as follows:

Body ... Nitrogen 3.45%; Ash 3.8%; "Jordan."

14.10%; Lime .138%; "Bizzell."

Feathers
Egg.

1.76%; Ash 9.7%.

Fertility and hatching-power of the eggs.
The following tabulation shows that for the entire hatching season,
the average fertility of the eggs and hatching-power of the fertile eggs
was not high, and that the difference which existed could hardly be at-
tributed to the method of feeding the fowls in the molting season.

Percentage of Fertility and Hatching-Power of Eggs.

Pens

Starved

Fed

5

19

24

Total

8

22 I 25

Total

No. eggs inc

115

89

989

1193

164

at

"a

969

^^23

Per cent fertile

67.82

82 .02

68.35

69.32

90.24

63 56

6743

Per cent of Fertile eggs
hatched

46.14

56.14

68.04

64 .03

63 .29

70.45

69.89

The hatching season of the three-year-old hens (pens 5 and 8) was
March and April; the two-year-old hens (pens 19 and 22) was December,
January and April; the one-year-old hens (pens 24 and 25) was February
to August, inclusive. A fair comparison between the flocks of the
different ages as to fertiUty and hatching-power of the eggs therefore, can-
not be made, because the early winter and late summer months are, as
a rule, less favorable for the fertility and hatching-ability. Such was
the case in this experiment.

A comparison, however, can accurately be made between the starved
and fed flocks since they each contained fowls of the three ages. It
will be seen that the fertility of the eggs, from the starved flocks, averaged
69.3%, and from the fed flocks, 67.4%; while the hatching-power of the
fertile eggs was, for the starved flocks, 64.9%, and the fed flocks, 69.8%,
a difference of about 5% in favor of the fed flocks. The large number
of eggs incubated (1193 from the starved flocks and T133 from the fed
flocks ) gives a fair basis for this estimate. The conditions of incubation
of the eggs from the starved and the fed flocks, while not identical,
were, nevertheless, so similar as to render a comparison as to hatching-
power justifiable.

The Molting of Fowls. 405

The method of feeding fowls in the molting season affects the profits.

The final test of any system of handling fowls in the molting season
will be the effect on the cost of production, in this instance, primarily,
egg-production. Table X gives the cost of a dozen eggs with each flock
for each of the sixteen periods of 28 days and the average cost per
dozen for each flock throughout the entire experiment. The cost per
dozen, however, does not necessarily indicate the actual profits per hen.
For example, the starved flocks, because they were eating less feed during
the first period, produced eggs at about the same cost ($.076 per dozen)
as the fed flocks ($.074 per dozen). The former laid 66.1 dozens of eggs
at a net profit of $8.57, while the latter laid 106.8 dozens of eggs at a net
profit of $17.02. (Tables X, XI, XII and XIII, and Fig. 22.)

It will be observed from an examination of Table X that the price
per dozen eggs per period varies between wide limits. This is due to
the fact that the cost of the maintenance ration forms a large part of
the expense of keeping a hen. This must be charged up against the hen
whether she lays or not. The more eggs that are laid, the less will be
the share of the maintenance to be charged up against the cost of each
dozen of eggs produced. In other words, the cheapest eggs are pro-
duced, as a rule, during the periods of highest average production. In
order to verify this statement, compare the cost per dozen eggs with
the normally fed flocks for the periods of highest average production;
namely, March 23 to April 19^$. 066 per dozen; April 20 to May 17=
$.065 per dozen; May 18 to June 14=$. 068 per dozen. On the other
hand, with the periods of lowest average production; — November 4 to
December i, when no eggs were produced, the cost of care and feed
was an entire loss. December 2 to December 29, the eggs cost $2.73
per dozen; December 30 to January 26, $1.99 per dozen. The contrast
with the starved flocks was even greater than it was with the ones under
normal conditions.

A study of Fig. 22 B will show the season of the year when the profits
are likely to be affected by the starvation process of "forcing the molt."
In the first three periods of the experiment (that is, the 28 days of starva-
tion and the two periods of 28 days each that followed) the hens declined
so rapidly in egg production that they failed to pay a profit over the
cost of feed. The fed pens, during this time, while declining in their
production through the natural conditions of molt at this season, never-
theless continued to pay a profit until the fourth and fifth periods,
November and December. The prices of eggs during the months of
August, September and October always rule high and the eggs laid at
this season, during the normal conditions of molt, are of considerable

4uO

Bulletin 258.

Q
>

■n

CO

Q
O

<

W

2

o

CO

Q
-1

O

>H

o

&

4>
>

O

O

04

6-

"^1

S2

10

O

ON

00

o

CO

Q

O

OS

•<
w

>^

a

«

a
H

M " QJ —

10

00

o

o

00

CO

00

O

O

o

o

o

o

O

10 I 00

o I o
o I o

o
o

o

CO

o

o

o

10

O

O

00

o

o

1^
o

10

00

o

o

00

o

00

C3\

CO

o

10

00

IH yj

o

10
to

O
O
O

o

00

00

>

<

t^

^

r^

t^

ro

ro

to

(-t

cq

-t—

o

t*5

■t „ cflT3

M " <U -5

1^ m

vO

O

00

00
o»

O

00

00

ON

00

00

00

o

0\ CO

o

VO

o

o

0)

MS

o

VO

o

00

o

o

10

C3V

o

00

<N I M

vO M

CV|

o

M I o

o

M
CO

o

o

Ov
O

o

o

O

o

VO

o

vO
O

to
O

VO

O

00
00

o

On
O

00

P)

ro
O

o

00

o

On

O

vO
vO

o

10

00

o

PO
vO

o

o

to

o

On

o

00

o

o

fO

00

o

00

to

00

o

00

o
o

00

>

<

ro

On

to

M

On

to

NO

O

CS -I-'

•d

>

<

00

On
O

to

c«
O

00
O

to

On

to

VO

c/3

VO
ro

00
O
PI

o

VO

VO

o

to

On

'I-
M

00

00

00
to

NO

PO

o
to

On!^'^
CO >

00

00

00
to

ON

O

VO

CO I

o
P)

On
O

to

O

VO

o

o

VO

o

VO

o

o

P)

vO

o

P)

VO

o

10

VO

o

00
VO

o

o

VO

o

VO
VO

ON

o

On
O

PO

VO

vo

00

P4

00

o

VO

o

p)
On
O

o

VO

o

On

VO

o

o

10
o

O

o

o

p)
O

PO

o

PO

00

o

VO

o

o

00

o

VO
VO

o

to
On
O

O

>

<

o

VO

Ov

IT)

PO

T3
CO <U

pg

to

r^

to

w

M

to fo OJ

On
ro
O

00

ON

o
P)

ON

o

00

00

00

o

to I N

PO

00

VO
O

PJ

o

PO
VO

o

VO
VO

o

o

ON

o

NO
NO

o

ro
VO
O

to

o

VO

VO

o

VO
VO

o

VO

o

to

00

o

o

CO

o

to

o

p)

VO

o

00

ON

00

o

p)
VO

to
o

PO

o

VO

o

to

00

o

O

o

O

P)

to

O
00

00
PO

p)
o

00

00
00

o

00

o

00

00

CO

>-,

00

CO

•d
o
'u

IV

Oh

p)

On

d

0)
CO

1

to

PO

>

d

Q

On
PI

6

Q

vd
PI

c
a

P4

Ph

1

PI

u

1

a,

M

1

00

1

VO

1

1
PI

PO

r^
w

PO

PO

3

a

-M

>

11

X:

ctJ

<

C/2

Z

Q

Q

Ph

S

M

p<

rT)

•«*•

to

VO

f^

00

1

Ov|

fO

a
o

a

M
H

N

(B

00
O

IH

(^

a
o

_^

CO

o

(0

N

(0

w

(fi

(^

t^

On

NO

.

.

T

>.

bi)

a,

•<*■

00

ni

3

a

3

(U

>

>— »

V

<

C/J

1

00

10

1

PO

1

7

1

p<

M

M

M

r^

to

u

<

C

•— >

•— >

3
<

a,

■»->

l-H

p)

PO

to

vO

B 4>

o c «

h <" o

CO o 5

" CO w,

. buoca

o

C
O

CO

to

O

c3

^

cS

tl

>

c

CI

u

^ ^

,—

■^-i

v+-

bo

(A

^/

-•-'

M

r>

-0

r-

*y]

r-

N

n

U

f J

T}

■*-<

u

3

n

CI.

f

4-t

^

CJ

•3

OJ

M

1

a

p-

r*

<

^

*

:-

The ]\1()Ltixg of Fow ls.

407

+

+

1

1

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

N

r~~

10

CO

CO

r^

r^

LO

CO

M

^O

(N

M

On

>o

On

N

ro

lt;

»— (

■*

M

CO

t^

CO

(N

NO

M

CO

00

0)

r^

r^

ro

't

■*

M

CO

ITj

OS

to

t^

N

>

M

M

M

M

1— 1

>H

M

»-(

M

M

M

<

&%

M

+

+

+

1

+

4-

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

u

0\

ro

u^

Os

CO

to

hH

CN)

to

M

^ ^

ro

CO

CO

M

^

-*

M

M

CO

to

to

to

T^

NO

LD <U "U

N X^

<^

^

N

M

M

o>

M

NO

't

Ti-

On

<N

w

M

)-t

M

CI

M

M

a

M

Tf

M

^^

M

Q

m

fo

+

+

T

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

1

+

to

CO

M

00

V3

m

N

VO

M

M

r^

On

l^

CO

On

;-<

M

03

<*

IN

t^

t^

LO

I^

CO

M

^

M

r^

o\

M

0. gT)

" >.o

Tt-

^

ro

"T)

r^

J-^

10

r~»

to

CO

NO

CO

Ci

NO

NO

■^

*-i

t-H

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

<^

M
to

4-

+

1

1

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

1

+

'^

c/3

>j-)

rf

UO

ro

0)

!>.

CO

0\

On

NO

to

On

00

*-•

LO

Cl

10

On

>o

ro

f^

r^

M

M

to

On

CO

NO

to

ro

CO 1) ^-i

>.o

ro

c-i

•*

M

(N

m

rO

to

r^

^

t

rj-

M

M

CI

t~i

N

M

M

M

00

fo

^

W

+

1

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

1

1)

r^

M

n

VO

M

l-H

CO

Tj-

^

t^

ro

NO

rf

NO

(S

10

p)

M

10

t~-

1/1

MD

On

On

On

NO

to

CO

10

00

MD

N

■*

ro

Ov

■0

t^

NO

On

On

C)

M

>

^

M

M

»H

M

M

M

o»

<

(0

+

1

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

u

N

CO

00

r^

W

(N

f^

M

CO

r^

in

=^-,

i-i

10

04

'^

^

1-

M

\J-i

vO

t^

t^

t^

On

Cv

M

•<t

^ jj'd

>o

c >>'3

M

M

LO

C)

ro

^O

M

t^

CO

to

NO

t

Q

f^

i-t

M

r^

C-l

M

M

M

ro

M

M

>
<

ee

+

1

1

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

V3

r-»

CO

CO

MD

ro

MD

CO

M-l

On

M

10

CO

CO

N

M

M

"

M

M

M

M

M

•

t~~

CO

M

C^

w

to

00

r^

t^

M

M

t^

to

M-

^

J^

t^

t^

M

l-(

M

M

M

Tl-

^

M

H

M

M

CI

M

M

h-(

+

1

1

1

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

1

1

+

12
>-.o

ro

10

N

Tt

10

IT)

H

to

ro

rO

t-t

"0

CO

On

ro

CO

ro

^

M

to

CO

00

On

t^

r^

t^

M

M

^

rt-

■*

CO

CO

f

to

•+

ro

M

^

M

M

t^

»— <

cs

M

M

M

M

<r>

fO

^

Vi

00

o O !i?
.S l-i O

t->CL, J

^11 II
+ I

I

bo
<

a
O

o

>

o
I

NO

o
O

o

o

Q
1

o

•z

On
Ct

Q

NO

CI

d
o

CO

Q

I

CI

CJ

u
I

CO
C)

,n

OJ

On

<
I

CO
cq

ci

>N

I

o

u

>N

>N

I

to

0)

On

b/3

d

1

CO

'd

NO

d

!X1

bo

d

o

O

CO

CO

>
O

o
O

iJULLETIX 258.

^1

c
O

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

1

+

M

10

<5

^

i-o

f^

10

On

t^

NO

CO

M

^

10

On

N

t-^

W

M

>o

CO

-*

t^

-*

r«~^

CO

1^

>— (

W

N

NO

00

«

0)

Tf

•*

10

ro

M

NO

Ti-

M

r^

■^

00

NO

U5

>

M

M

M

w

Cl

M

M

M

IH

CO

«<

<^

M

+

+

+

1

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

1

+

CO

10

On

CO

10

M

Cl

u->

-1!

PO

00

CO

M

^

NO

■*

M

(-1

00

10

LO

10

'^i-

NO

"fo

ro

■*

Cl

01

M

On

NO

Cl

vO

•+

'^

On

(N

M

HH

HH

M

Cl

M

M

Cl

M

Tj-

%^

H

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

•d

Cl

00

CO

r^

On

w

Cl

r^

M

CO

t^

tn

J^

M

I/-)

c^

'^l-

"^

-*

M

u->

vO

NO

r^

r^

r^

Ov

On

M

^

-*&

M

M

to

<N

ro

VO

r^

Cl

tv.

CO

10

NO

■*

d

4»

IH

M

)-t

Cl

M

M

M

S?

C/D

(«

>N

o

bo
a
u

>

'fe

+

ro

O

On

M
M

+

00

CO

1

On

On

NO

Cl

CO

Cl

Cl

NO

t^

t-(

1

CO

NO

Ti-

On

Cl

ro

CO

t^

+

On

+
to

ON

+

On

+

Cl

+

CO

CO

+

NO

to

On

Tf

CO
1^

+
On

+
o

CO

+

On
O

CO

+

+

o

CO

+

NO
CO

On

+

On

+

00

NO

+
NO

CO

+

o

On
ro

On

On
On

NO

+

NO

O

o

M

M

T3

+

Cl

r^
^

+

On

NO

M

Cl

M

r^

+

CO

+

NO

+

o

+

00
NO

+

to

+

On

CO

+

to

Cl

+

CO

+

CO
to

O

CO

+

N
O

O

M
(A

to
u

a

4)

bjci
u

>

<

+

to
On

^

10

CO

CO

NO

to

CO

CO

to
to

+

CO
On

+
to

CO

Tt
Cl

+

O

ON

NO

+
10

+

ON
CO

+

>-l

o

NO

+

CO
O

to

+
CO

O

NO

"^-g

fo

+

00
to

<i»

+

to

Cl

to

NO
ON

to

NO

+

Cl

to

+

CO
Cl

+

00

i-t

On

+

o

to

+
On
On

+
On
O

+

NO

CO

+

to

NO

ON

to

+

00
ro

00

C/3

+

CO
CO

to
On

Cl
On

CO

to
O

00

to

CO

00

+

CO
to

to

+
CO

NO

+

+

H

CO

00

CO

ro

M

M

M

+

CO

On

+

o

On

O

On

+

o

CO
(B

OJ
CO

I

bz)

>

u

^

CO

NO

OJ

■4-5

o

OJ

Q
I

o

o
Q

o
Q

NO
Cl

c

03

o

CO

cj

OJ

Q

I
Cl

C
nS

u

a

CO

OJ

On

<

I

CO
N

U

a

r^
I

O
c<

u

a.

<:

V

CO

>N

I
10

OJ

C
3

On

bi
I

CO

M

I— H

NO

d

I
o

bjo

o
O

a

C/3

>

o
I

to

o
O

NO

CS

o
H

The Moltixg of Fowls.

409

z

S

M
Oi

t-t

^:

w

Pi
o

CO

2:
>: (^

►4

•<

w

o
o

o

H

w

-«;

-<
O

iz:

•<

Ov

ro •-

1 to 1 cc

c

1 OC

.

VO

-

ro 1 1 CC

1 Oi

2

CO

10 ►-

^ 1 00 1 1-

■^

H

1-

^ 1 rO 1 M 1

0^

M

CV

^

M

>

۩

«e

<

c

vC

r^ C

ro 1 t^

;-i

t— 1

r^ r^ CO 1 t-

CO

^.

.r,Ol3

r^

10 1 ro m:

r^ to .H

N >.'3

t^

^

1-

t^ ro 1 ■*

N

1-

M

M

^

in

Til

1

1

1

t^

C

m ^

t^ ro ^

i2

UO

Cs

<:r, cc

to to

1-

c

CO ■
^O to ro N

C4

h-

N

•' c

M

M

<N

^

«e

VO

c

1/

-) c

S VC

■* <s

t/1

o\

K-

vC

■u

-i On ro 1 vO |

00 g3

c
c

h 1-

r-

T^ CC
i-i p

VO
00

ro

m

rO

s>

01

CO

^c

■^

h CO

>C

00

t>

1^

)H

1/

I a

N r*

■^ VO

VO

2

CO

T

M

M

C

^ r~

H

<u

M

t-H

M

M

9*

>

0)

c-

M

w

<

^

(S

c

N C

:> <N

C)

u

to

^

1- r-

tr

■> P)

fo

CC

C

N O

^

" >.o

^

■^

r "

PO

M

cs

M

M

T)

w

^

««

i)

>
U

'^

c

-;

h

■*

Cfi

CO

u

10

Ov

r^

■5 c

^

1- r*

:> M

rt

,_,

r*

■^ c

^

vC

n

•<t

■;

^

ffi

CT

OC

r*

■:i p

P)

1/

■i t^

M

OC

c

N M

tc

-i m

OC

vC

\t

■j M

M

h-

r^

fo

^^

1

-t-

<u

r-*

T/3

'•

1

-4-

3

C

r>

c

'^

-4->

1— 1

(-"

-*-

^

c

«C

tx

_G

be

4->

c
c

^C

^c

E
c

C
6

S,

tD

'rt

3

H-

a

y

t-

u

<u

W)

M-

y

c

y

c

C

0)

<u

c

C

:3

d

S

4-

4-

-P

"a

n

_rt

(/■

y

y

+-

+-

"3

cj

03

>'-J

c

c

c

C

C

>

>

>

C

C

C

^

H

P3

1

4IO

BULLETIN 258.

AUG. 1 1 SER8 0CT6 N0V.4 0E:C.2 DEC,30 JAN?7 iiae3 fWR23 APR.20 mYl8 JUN.I5 JULI3 AUG. W SEP 7 OCT 5
5EPr OCr.5 N0U3 DEC.I DEC.29JAN.2e Fta22nAR.22APR.I9V1AYir JON 14 JULIE, AUG. 9 SEP 6 0CT4 NOVS
1 3 J -^ 5 6 7 a 9 /O IJ ;B J3 _J^ JS JG

Fig. 22. — A comparison of the profits of the flocks, by periods of 28 days.

. . =/ year old.

=2 years old.

J years old.

r> \ ^Starved flocks.

^ } Fed flocks.

Note that all the flocks were kept at a loss during the months of Oct. , Nov. and Dec.
and that the starved flocks made a less profit during the starvation period than the
fed flocks, and only a slightly less loss during the early winter months and consider-
ably less profit during the latter part of the year.

The ]\r(»LTixf; of Fowls. 411

importance, and may determine the profit or loss per hen for the year.
This was the case with the fed flocks. They continued to pay a fair
profit during the molt, while the starved flocks were being kept at a loss.
Though the starved flocks laid a few more eggs during early winter than
did the fed flocks, they did not lay enough more eggs to overcome the
loss during the molting season. This loss was largely due to the starva-
tion process. In the second year the comparative profits ruled higher
with the fed hens than they did with the ones which were starved the
previous year; both flocks being fed normally the second year. This
result would appear to indicate that the starved fowls might have been
weakened by their long fast. If so, it was shown only in their egg-
production.

From the summary, Table XIII, it will be seen that (estimated on
a hundred hen basis) the fed hens laid, during the year, eggs which were
worth, at market prices, on the average for each flock, $29.97 more than
the eggs laid by the starved hens. They did this at an average cost of
$1.17 more for the fed flocks, making the total gross income (when
taking into consideration the gain or loss in weight, the loss of stock,
the sale of eggs, and the cost of feed, but not including the labor) $219.36
for the starved flocks and $248.88 for the fed flocks, an average gross
income, in favor of the fed flocks, of $29.52 per pen, which would be,
for the three fed pens, $88.56. The total net income was, for the starved
fowls, $278.01, and for the fed flocks, $350.94, leaving a net balance
profit, in favor of the fed flocks, of $75.93.

III. GENERAL ADVICE AND SUMMARY.
Method of feeding.

It is generally held that the method of feeding and the quality and
quantity of food has much influence on the time, rapidity, and uniformity
of molt.

In the absence of reliable data as to the best method of feeding fowls
during the critical period of the molt, it would seem desirable to follow
the practice commonly believed to be correct: namely, to feed liberally
on rations which are easy of digestion and rich in protein and oil. There-
fore, in addition to the regular rations, such foods as meat, oil meal,
sunflower seed, etc., should be added, or, if already being fed, should
be increased in amount. This modified ration is given in order to meet
the increased demands of the body for feather-making material at a time
when the system presumably would be in need of protein to furnish
nitrogen for the growth of feathers and oil to supply available heat for the
scantily protected body

412 Bulletin 258.

What is tlie normal nwlt?

From the facts now at hand regarding the molting of fowls, it seems
that the best molt, considering the question of the vitality of the stock,
is one when the fowl sheds the old feathers and replaces them in a regular
sequence with the new, without leaving the individual at any time in
an exposed and defenceless condition, and therefore in danger either from
inclement weather or inability to escape from its natural enemies.

When fowls molt naturally and well, one should scarcely be able to
notice that the flock is molting, except that the shed feathers are found
in large quantities about the place. These hens, however, may not be
the most highly developed producers. Just how far man may safely
go in his development of the productive powers of the hen, without
endangering her life or the vitality of her oft'spring by artificial conditions,
remains to be proved. It would appear that one of the first natural
results as a consequence of an increased egg yield, is a postponement
of the time of the moU.

Hen number 61 (Figs. 19 and 20) is a good example of the abnormal
molt. Her inherited disposition to lay was apparently so strongly
developed that it overbalanced the natural habit to molt during the
usual and proper season. As a result, she would have paid the penalty
of too high production, and retarded molt, by suffering from the Novem-
ber cold, if speci?! care had not been provided for her.

Summary of fliidings.

(i) The rotation of molting was practically the same with hens of
all ages — the oldest feather being shed first.

(2) The chick and hen both feathered more quickly in such areas as
would protect the vital parts.

(3) From the incubator to the laying period the chicks experienced
at least ionr molts, either partial or complete.

(4) Hens frequently laid during the summer while partially molting,
but seldom during the general molt.

(5) Hens have individual traits as to season of molting, but seldom
as to rotation of molt.

(6) Young hens molted more quickly than older ones.

(7) Young hens were more easily influenced by methods of feeding
than older ones.

(8) Hens molting very late molted in less time than those molting
earlier.

(9) Hens molting very late gave a higher yearly production than
those molting earlier.

Till-: MoLTix*. OF T^V.wLs.

413

(10) Hens normally fed tended to molt at the same season in succes-
sive years.

(11) The "forced molt" in one year did not influence materially,
as to time and completeness, the molt of the succeeding year.

(12) Hens lost in weight while molting.

(13) Hens often regained weight before close of molt, and more
especially before commencing to lay.

(14) Broodiness appeared to retard molt.

(15) The starvation process appeared to increase broodiness.

(16) Hens molting early resumed production more quickly after molt
than those molting later.

(17) Hens molting early laid more eggs during early winter than
hens molting late.

(18) The most prolific hens molted latest.

(19) As compared to the fed flocks, the starved hens

(a) molted slightly earlier and more uniformly. They

(b) were in somewhat better condition at the end of the molt;

(c) molted (average) in slightly less time;

(d) gained less above first weight during molt ;

(e) gained slightly more in weight during the year;

(f) resumed production somewhat more quickly after molt ;

(g) laid a few more eggs during winter ;

(h) were materially retarded in egg production ;

(i) produced less eggs after the molt was completed;

(j) produced eggs at a greater cost per dozen;

(k) consumed slightly less food during the year;

(1) had slightly less mortality ;

(m) showed slightly more broodiness;

(n) paid a much smaller profit.

(20) The fowls produced the largest profits in the order of their
ages. The one-year-old hens produced the greatest number of eggs and
gave the largest net profits. The two-year-olds were a close second
with the three-year-olds somewhat farther behind, having, however, a
good balance profit to their credit.

(21) There was considerably less mortality in the two-year-olds,
which were hopper fed dry mash, than in either the one-year-olds or
three-year-olds, which were fed a wet mash.

(22) The cost per dozen eggs was greatest in the three-year-old pens,
followed closely by the two-year-olds, and was least with the one-year-
olds.

4^4 BULLETIX 258.

(2;^) Broodiness was greatest in the two-year-olds and least in the
three-year-olds.

(24) It was noticeable that broodiness was nearly always confined
to a few individuals, and that, although immediately broken up, they
became broody again and again.

(25) The fact that there was 67.6 per cent of broodiness in starved
pens against 38.1 per cent in the fed pens would indicate that there might
be some connection between the amount of food consumed and broodi-
ness in fowls. In this case a restriction in diet appeared to induce
broodiness.

(26) It was noticeable with all flocks that they consumed much
larger quantities of food and increased in weight before beginning egg-
production. This would seem to indicate that the inaximum production
is preceded by a preparatory stage, during which the body stores up
surplus nutrients against a time of need.

The above findings are based on this experiment only and must not
be understood to be necessarily conclusive.

General conclusions.

The findings would indicate that with the methods employed, with
White Leghorn fowls, one, two or three years old, it does not pay to
"force a molt," by starvation method and that apparently it is good
policy to encourage hens, by good care and feeding, to lay during late
summer and fall, rather than to resort to unusual means to stop laying
in order to induce an early molt, with the hope of increasing productive-
ness during early winter, a season which is naturally unfavorable for egg-
production. In short, it appears wise, when hens want to lay, to let
them lay.

This experiment should be repeated under similar conditions with
the same variety or with different varieties of fowls before final conclu-
sions can be drawn. Molting experiments should also be conducted
with various methods of feeding to control the molt before the method
of so-called "forcing molt" can be safely accepted or rejected.

MARCH. 1908 CIRCULAR No. 1

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF
THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

L. H. Bailey, Director

Department of Plant Biology

TESTING THE GER^IIXATION OF SEED CORN.*

It is highly important every year that the ears of corn which are
to be used for seed be tested as to their abihty to germinate. This
year, the necessity for this precaution is even greater than usual because
last season was so exceptionally short that the vitality of much of the
seed corn has been greatly lowered by the freezing weather which oc-
curred while the corn was either still in the field or not sufficiently cured
to withstand the low temperature. Poor seed is largely responsible for
" poor stands " and " poor stands " mean poor crops.

As an illustration of the importance of such germination tests, the
results of an experiment conducted by Professor Holden may be cited.
In the spring of 1905, the Agricultural Department of the Iowa State
College secured 90 samples from corn that was actually being planted,
that is the samples were taken from either the corn planter or the bags
of corn seed in the field. These samples were planted by hand, 3 kernels
per hill, and treated alike in every respect. The experiment was re-
peated three times to be sure that no error was made. The following
table gives the yield per acre of the six highest yielding samples and
also of the six lowest yielding samples :

SIX HIGHEST YIELDING SAMPLES BU. PER ACRE

Sample No. 59 80 . 5

" No. 58 80

No. 66 78.5

" No. 71 77

" No. 138 75

" No. 68 75

Average 77 . 5

* Prepared by M. P. Jones, under the direction of Dr. H. J. Webber.

4i6 Circular No. i.

SIX LOWBST YIELDING SAMPLES BU= PER ACRE

31-5

Sample

No.

44

u

No.

132

u

No.

36

u

No.

32

u

No,

29

•«

No.

32,

2Z
34
36

37
40

Average 35.6

The difference in the average yield of the six highest and six lowest
yielding samples is 41.9 bushels per acre, while between sample No. 44
and sample 59, there is a difference of 49 bushels per acre. "This
great difference," says Professor Holden, "was due largely to the differ-
ence in the vitality of the seed, as in every case the low yielding samples
had given a poor stand." These same differences are occurring right
here in New York State and for the same reason — poor seed. By testing
the germination of corn for planting, seed of strong vitality can be
secured and there is probably no one thing which will do more to make
the corn crop of New York State average more bushels per acre than
the use of seed that will grow.

Since it takes but 15 to 24 ears to plant an acre, it is readily seen that
if some of these ears are of low vitality serious loss will result. Some
farmers believe that they can tell by simple examination which ears
will grow, but even where this ability has been acquired, as the result of
long practice, the results are very inaccurate. The only reliable method
of determining which ears will grow and which will not is by an actual
germination test. A test of this sort is so simple and so easily made
that by two hours of actual work enough corn can be tested to plant
ten acres. It is safe to say that no time spent in caring for the corn
crop will be so well paid for by a corresponding increase in the yield.
It is not a question of cost or time, for certainly every grower can afford
the little time and expense necessary to make such a test of the seed
they expect to plant.

SELECTION OF GOOD SEED EARS.

The first process in the preparation of the seed corn is the selection
of the best ears. As every corn grower knows, this selection of the best
ears for seed is very important A good ear of corn in general should
be cylindrical in shape and of about the same diameter from base to
tip. It is very easy to find ears too long and slender to give the best
results. The ear giving the largest weight of shelled com of good quality

Department of Plant Biology.

417

~C5

a

o

so

-a

o

Co

•J

'in

14

^i8 Circular Xu. i.

and grade is in general the best ear. The cars which give this, ordinarily
have deep kernels set on a medium sized cob and are generally well
filled at the tip and butt. Length of kernel is one of the most important
characters as almost always, if not invariably, high yielding varieties
have long kernels. The best form of kernel is wedge shaped, with
straight sides and edges. This allows them to occupy all the space on
the cob and form a solid heavy ear. They should not be chaffy nor
have prolonged chaffy caps.

Select of good ears, a considerable number more than will be necessary
to plant a crop of the size desired and then test the germination of each
of these ears by the following method.

METHOD OF TESTING GERMINATION.

The simplest way to test sufficient ears for the corn crop on the average
sized farm is by means of the germmating box, described byProfessor
Holden (Figs, i and 2). Almost any sort of a box of a depth of from
four to eight inches and of a size depending on the number of ears to be
tested can be used. Soap boxes or tomato can boxes, which can be
obtained at any grocery store, are perfectly satisfactory. Do not use
any box so large that it cannot be carried around easily by one man.
The box should be half filled with sand or sawdust, preferably sawdust
thoroughly moistened, but not saturated. This layer of sawdust should
be two or three inches deep, and should be packed down so that the
surface will be even and smooth.

A piece of white cloth slightly larger than the size of the box should
be ruled off with a lead pencil, checkerboard fashion into squares ij
to 25 mches in size. Each square should be numbered consecutively
from one upward (Fig. 2). This cloth should be now placed over and
m close contact with the sawdust or sand, and tacked to the corners
and sides of the box.

The next step is to lay out the seed ears, the germination of which
IS to be tested. They should be arranged in a row on the floor, a table,
or a shelf, in a place where they will not be disturbed (Fig. i). To avoid
mistakes it is well to number every ear. This can be done by writing
the number on a little piece of thin cardboard and insertmg it between
the rows of kernels (Fig. i) or the number may be written on a piece
of paper and this paper fastened by pushing a pin through it into the
butt of the cob or held by a rubber band put around the ear. If there
is no possibility of the position of the ears being disturbed this precau-
tion may not be necessary.

Now with a pocket knife remove six kernels from each ear. Take
one kernel each, from near the tip, middle and butt on one side of the

Department of Plant I'.iology.

419

■' i

;'l

r.i

7' •>.//-

f 'ii'cr'^7'^''' -^T ■■a£i 'iHi.

■11

u_

Fig. 2. — Gcnmnatwn bux i^ith kernels in place.

420

Circular Xo. i.

ear, then turn the ear over and take three more kernels in a like manner
from the opposite side of the ear. These should be carefully laid in
the square in the box corresponding to the number of the ear. Thus
six kernels from ear No. i will go in square No. i and six kernels from ear
No. 2 into square No. 2, and so on. It is best to place the kernels point-
ing one way and with the germ side up. (Figs. 2 and 3.)

Fig. 3. — Four squares from a germination box; j, good vigorous germination; 4,
medium good germination; 7 and 8, slow poor germination.

After all the squares in the box are filled with the kernels from as
many correspondingly numbered ears, a piece of thin cloth should be
placed over them, being very careful not to disarrange or change the
position of the kernels in putting the cloth down. This should be
gently sprinkled with water and on top of this two thoroughly wet burlap

Department of Plant Biology. 421

bags should be laid, care being taken to see that the burlap is pressed
down closely at the corners and along the sides in order to keep all the
kernels uniformly moist. The box should now be placed near a stove,
where it is warm and where the temperature never goes below freezing.
The kitchen is usually a good place. The bags on the top of the box
should be sprinkled if there is any danger of their drying out.

Within from four to seven days, depending to a great extent on the
temperature at which the germinating box is kept, the kernels will
have germinated sufficiently to allow the selection of the ears to be made.
The bags and piece of cloth should be taken off with great care so that
the com will not be disturbed. The kernels of each square should now
be examined in connection with the ear from which they were taken
and compared with the germinating kernels of the other ears. Great
differences will be at once apparent. Some ears will be represented
by kernels part of which as in ear No. 8, Fig. 3, show no germination.
All such ears should be discarded. Other ears will be represented by
kernels, which, as in No. 7, Fig. 3, germinate weakly. The roots will
be thin, yellow and sickly, and perhaps some kernels will be mouldy
and by their appearance as a whole show clearly lack of vigor. Those
ears, all, or part of whose kernels germinate weakly, should be dis-
carded. The kernels of still other ears will germinate vigorously with
strong, healthy sprouts, as is the case in ears No. 3 and 4, Fig. 3. Ears
represented by such kernels should be used for planting.

If it is found necessary to buy seed corn in bulk, ask your seed merchant
for a sample and test several hundred kernels of this in a germinating
box similar to the above. A germination test of such bulk samples
can also easily be made by putting a piece of blotting paper in the
bottom of a pan, thoroughly moistening this and putting the kernels on
it. Now cover with some more wet blotting paper or wet cloths and
place a pane of glass over the top of the pan to prevent drying out
Keep the blotting paper and cloths damp. Examine at the end of
five or six da3^s. If less than eighty out of one hundred kernels
germinate vigorously, it cannot be considered good seed corn.

Every farmer in the State should test the germination of the corn
he plants for seed. This is especially important with seed intended
for next year's planting. The work had best be done on some of these
winter evenings before the spring work begins. Let the boys and girls
do it. It will do them good and make the corn crop larger.

CARE OF SEED CORN.

When to harvest seed corn. — It is important that the seed com be
thoroughly dried out before it is subjected to severe freezing. It is desir-

422 Circular No. i.

able to select the seed corn early in the fall, before there is danger of
freezes. Light frosts would not injure the seed, but the selection should
not be delayed too long, as a severe freeze might greatly injure the
vitality of the seed if it was not thoroughly dried out when the freeze
came.

Where to gather seed. — Select your seed from that portion of [the field
which is uniformly the best developed. It is a good practice to husk this
portion of the field early in the season to be sure that those ears saved
for seed will have been husked and preserved before freezes occur.

How to preserve seed. — The seed corn as soon as husked should be
placed in a dry, well-ventilated room where the ears can be spread out.
They should not be piled in a heap, as it is important to expose them to
a free circulation of air, so that they will dry quickly and thoroughly
without moulding. It is a good practice, often followed, to leave a few
husks attached to each ear, so that the ears may be tied together in pairs
by means of the husks and then hung over poles or wires in the upper
part of the room. If convenient, racks can be made like bookcases,
with slat shelves about 4 or 5 inches apart, and open backs and fronts,
in which the ears can be arranged until thoroughly dried. Only one
row of ears should be placed on each shelf. This method allows the
preservation of a large amount of seed corn in a small space.

Use of artificial heat in drying seed. — It has been found to be very
important to dry out the seed corn quickly and thoroughly, and the use
of some artificial heat is in most cases desirable. It is thus important,
especially in damp, cold seasons, to place the seed corn in a room where
there is a stove in which a fire can be maintained at least a portion of
each day for about two weeks, or until the corn is thoroughly dried out.
In favorable dry autumns artificial heat may not be necessary, but in
many cases the "kiln drying" of seed, as it is called, will be found to be
very important. In one experiment made by Mr. C. P. Hartley, of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, kiln-dried seed gave an average yield
of 16 bushels per acre more than ordinary air-dried seed of the same
variety grown in the same place. The experimental field in this case
contained about 10 acres, and was planted with the air-dried and kiln-
dried seed in alternate rows.

NoTB. — Correspondence on this subject may be addressed to Professor H. J. WEBBER.

MAKCH. 1908 CIRCULAR. No 2

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Department of Plant Pathology

FUNGICIDES.
By H. H. Whetzel.

Fungicides consist chiefly of chemical substances of a more or less
poisonous nature that are applied to plants in various ways to protect
them, or free them, from their fungous parasites. In far the greater
majority of cases, the fungicide is to be applied to healthy plants to pro-
tect them from the attacks of these parasites. The fungicide must be
of a kind or strength not injurious to the plant to be protected, but at
the same time it must be destructive, to the fungus spore that would
germinate and infect the unprotected fruit or leaf. Because certain
chemicals or certain strengths of these chemicals in solution are injurious
to some plants and not to others and because not all parasites are affected
alike by the poisons, different mixtures of different strengths must be
applied to different plants. The stajje of growth or development oi the
plant, the conditions of the weather, the life habits of the parasite to be
destroyed and other factors, are almost always to be taken into con-
sideration m applying fungicides to prevent diseases. We are rapidly
learning that Bordeaux is not a "cure all" for all diseases to which plants
are subject. We are also learning that the same strength of the mixture
cannot be used with safety on all crops. It constantly becomes more
apparent that other factors beside spraying play a very large part in the
control of fungous diseases, none perhaps more so than sanitation: i. e.
good and proper cultural methods; clean cultivation; thorough syste-
matic pruning; proper rotation; yards, waste lands and fence rows kept
free from weeds and volunteer plants These are really the things that
count most in the yearly fight against fungous pests. It is a significant-
fact that it is in the otherwise well-cared for orchard that sprajang
pays best.

In the case of a few fungi, such as surface mildews, the fungicide may
be effectively applied after the parasite appears on the host plant. In
the vast majority of cases, however, the parasite works within the host
and the poison must be applied before infection takes place.

423

424 Circular Xo. 2.

In some cases the fungicide is to be applied to the seed in order to
destroy the spores that chng to the outside of it. In the case of a few
diseases, the parasite enters the seed before it ripens and there remains
dormant from one season to the next. The appHcation of high temper-
ature by means of hot water has proved effective in destroying the para-
site without serious injury to the germinating abiHty of the seed. The
loose smut of wheat and the naked smut of barley are good examples.

In a few cases, the application of certain chemicals to the soil effectively
controls diseases of the roots or stems of plants. The few parasites con-
trolled in this way are soil lovers, living for at least a part of their lives
as saprophytes on the decaying materials or humus of the soil. Some
soil fungi are effectively destroyed by steam sterilization. This is
practicable chiefly in the greenhouse.

The preparation of the common fungicides is neither difficult nor
expensive. Below are given concise directions for preparing those most
commonly in use at present, together with lists of the more common
diseases which careful experiments have shown to be effectively con-
trolled by them. For detailed directions for applying them to any par-
ticular disease, address an inquiry to the Plant Pathologist, New York
State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y.

SPRAY MIXTURES.
Bordeaux Mixture.

Materials. Copper sulfate (blue vitriol) costing 7 to 10 cents per pound; good
stone lime costing around a dollar a barrel; and water. These are to be put together
in different proportions depending upon the crop to be sprayed and the time when
the application is to be made. The proportion is usually expressed in the following
way, 5-5-50 which means: Copper sulfate 5 lbs.; lime 5 lbs. ; and water 50 gallons.
Other proportions are used for some diseases and under certain conditions. These
are Indicated by other numbers in the formula, as 2-4-50, etc. The copper sulfate
is the active agent in the mixture. The lime is added to neutralize the caustic
action of the copper sulfate which would otherwise bum the leaves or fruit of the
plant.

Formula 5-5-50.

To prepare the mixture. Dissolve the 5 lbs. of copper sulfate in 30 or 40 gallons
of water by suspending the crystals in a gunny sack just beneath the surface of the
water, as the dissolved vitriol settles quickly to the bottom. Prepare the hme
(5 lbs.) by slacking it with hot water adding the water slowly so that the lime
crumbles into a fine powder. When completely slacked, i.e. entirely powdered,
add 5 or 6 gallons of cold water to make a rather thin milky solution. When the
vitriol is all dissolved stir it thoroughly and pour into it the lirne milk which has been
thoroughly stirred. Add enough water to make 50 gallons. One solution, pre-
ferably the copper sulfate as indicated above should always be much diluted.

Department of Plant Patholocv. 425

Never pour together two strong solutions and then dilute afterwards. Never pour
together the two solutions until ready to use. It is well to strain the mixture as it
goes into the sprayer to take out anything that might clog the nozzle. Do not use
tin or iron vessels in making the bordeaux. They will be eaten by the copper
sulfate.

When large quantities of Bordeaux are to be made, prepare concentrated stock
solutions by dissolving the copper sulfate at the rate of one pound to the gallon
and slake the lime, one pound to the gallon of water. Dilute 5 gallons of the vitriol
solution in 30 or 40 gallons water and add 5 gallons of the lime solution. Add
water to make 50 gallons.

When only a small amount of the mixture is wanted at a time prepare dilute
stock solutions, by dissolving 5 lbs. copper sulfate in 25 gallons of water, and slake
5 lbs. of lime and dilute to 2 5 gallons in water. Now to prepare any desired amount
of the mixture, stir the solutions thoroughly and pour together equal parts of each
into a third vessel or in the sprayer tank. Stock solutions should be kept in
barrels with tight lids to prevent concentration by evaporation.

Ferrocyanide test. It is not necessary to weigh the lime, if some test is used to
determine when sufficient of the lime milk has been added. The most convenient
test is the "ferro-cyanide" test. Put an ounce of yellow prussiate of potash in a
pint bottle and fill it with water. This is poison and should be so labelled. Stop
the bottle with a cork from one side of which has been taken a V shaped piece so
as to give a small opening into the bottle. Add lime milk to the copper sulfate
solution until the ferro-cyanide solution will not turn brown when dropped from
the bottle into the mixture. Then add an extra gallon or so of lime milk. An
excess of lime will do no special harm and may aid in some cases in holding the
mixture to the plants or possibly prevent spray injury.

The following common diseases are controlled by Bordeaux mixture: Apple
Scab, New York Apple-Tree Canker, Asparagus Rust, Bean Anthracnose (in some
cases). Leaf-spot of Beets, Leaf-Blight of Celery, Leaf-spot of Cherry, Cucumber
Mildew, Leaf-spot of Currant, Ginseng Blight, Black Rot of Grapes, Anthracnose
and downy Mildew of the Grape, Hollyhock rust. Onion Mildew, Leaf curl of the
Peach, Leaf-spot and Scab of the Pear, Leaf-spot of the Plum, Late Blight of
Potatoes, Leaf and Fruit-spot of the Quince, Raspberry Anthracnose, Black-spot
of the Rose, Strawberry Leaf-spot, Leaf-spot of Tomato.

In applying Bordeaux to some plants, it is desirable to add something to the
mixture to make it adhere satisfactorily. The following has been useful in spray-
ing such plants as onions, cabbage, asparagus, etc. By the use of this "sticker"
the effectiveness of the mixture on other plants would perhaps be greatly increased
and the number of applications in some cases reduced.

Resin Sal Sod.\ Sticker.

Resin 2 lbs.

Sal Soda (crystals) i lb.

Water i gal.

Boil in an iron vessel until of a clear brown color i to ij hours. Cook in the
open and watch carefully as it is apt to boil over. For spraying plants like cabbage,
onions and the like, add this amount to 50 gallons of Bordeaux, for spraying other
plants add half the amount to 50 gallons of the Bordeaux. Bordeaux containing
this "sticker," once dry, will not be washed off by the heaviest rains.

4^6 Circular No. 2.

Bordeaux Injury.

Some plants are injured by the ordinary strength ot Bordeaux even when prop-
erly made. Others like the apple are sometimes injured by quite weak Bordeaux
under certain weather conditions. The leaves of most varieties of stone fruits,
especially peaches, and Japanese plums are almost sure to be injured by Bordeaux
except in very weak mixtures. The injury to these plants consists usually of small
holes in the leaves, very similar in appearance to the shot hole efifect of certain
fungi. The injury on the apple occurs on both the leaves and the fruit. On the
leaves it consists of quite definite brown spots very much like certain leaf spots
due to fungi. Where the injury is quite severe the affected leaves turn yellow and
fall. The injury on the fruit takes the form of russeting. It may even cause large
cracks to appear. Some varieties of apples suffer more than others. Wet weather
during the spraying season appears to be one of the chief factors in the production
of Bordeaux injury, on apples. It has also been shown that "the more copper
sulfate, the greater the injury." It is to be understood, however, that injury
from Bordeaux is much less common and serious than injury from the scab, to pre-
vent which it is applied. For fuller discussion of this subject see the N. Y. (Geneva)
Bull. 287.

Good nozzles {hole 1-16 in.), good pressure (100 to 140 lbs.) and a good man, make
spraying pay. Tlioroughness is the secret of successful spraying. Be thorough.

Soda Bordeaux.

Soda (Commercial lye), about i J lbs. (acc'd to strength)

Copper sulfate 5 lbs.

Lime, about ^ lb.

Water 50 gals.

Dissolve the copper sulfate in 30 gallons water; dissolve the lye in a gallon or so
of hot water, dilute to 15 gallons and pour slowly into the copper sulfate solution.
Add milk of lime to test with litmus or ferro-cyanide and add water to make 50
gallons. This mixture is rather difficult to prepare as there must be neither an
excess of copper sulfate or of the lye. The lye must be of such strength that i h lbs.
will not quite neutralize the 5 lbs. of copper .sulfate. The small amount of lime is
added to completely neutralize the copper sulfate. It is a colorless mixture and
desirable as it will not clog nozzles. Should be used witli caution for unless prop-
erly made will injure foliage severely. See N. J. Bulls. 167 and 194.

Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate.

5-3-45-

Copper carbonate 5 oz.

Ammonia (26° Beaumc) 3 pts.

Water 45 gals.

Make a paste of the copper carbonate with a little water. Dilute the ammonia
in seven or eight quarts of water. Add the paste to the diluted ammonia and stir
until dissolved. Add enough water to make 45 gallons. Allow it to settle and use
only the clear blue liquid. This mixture loses strength on standing. Used in
place of the Bordeaux where one wishes to avoid staining maturing fruits or orna-
mental plants. Not considered to be as effective as the Bordeaux.

Depart -MKXT of Plant Paihoi.ocv. 427

Clear Copper Sulfate Solution.

Made by dissolving copper sulfate crystals in varying amounts of water depend-
ing upon the disease to be sprayed for and the time or season when the application
is to be made. Usually applied to more or less dormant trees 2 lbs. to 50 gal-
lons is effective against Peach Leaf Curl. Should not be applied to plants in foliage.

Potassium Sulfid.

Potassium sulfid (Liver of sulfur) , 3 oz.

Water 10 gals.

Make just before using, as it loses strength on standing. Particularly valuable
for the powdery mildews of plants. Effective for the control of the following:
Carnation Rust (i oz. to i gal.), Gooseberry Mildew, Cherry Mildew, Phlox Mil-
dew, etc.

Sulfur.

This is often effectively used in the control of Mildews. It is dusted thoroughly
over the plants especially when they are wet. Most effective in dry hot weather.
In Rose Houses it is mixed with half its bulk of lime and made into a paste with
water. This is painted on the steam pipes. The fumes destroy the mildew on
the roses. Mixed with lime it has proven effective in the control of onion smut
when drilled into the rows with the seed. Also shown to be effective in preventing
potato scab on infested land. Scatter in furrow at planting 300 lbs. to an acre.

Lime.

Not usually effective as a fungicide. Has been used as spray to prevent leaf
curl of peach. Liming the soil with stone lime 2 ^ to 5 tons to the acre has proven
very effective in controlling the club root of cabbage and turnips. Apply at least
3 months before planting the crop, i to 4 years is better.

Lime-Sulfur Wash.

The lime and sulfur wash used in spraying for San Jose Scale is also quite effective
as a fungicide especially in preventing leaf curl of peach. A modified form of this
wash known as the "self cooked" lime-sulfur wash is now being recommended for
the spraying of peaches, plums, apples, etc., in foliage. It is said to cause no injury
to the leaves or fruit. It has given good results in controlling Brown Rot and
Scab of peaches. It is prepared as follows:

Place ten lbs. of sulfur and 15 lbs. of stone lime in a barrel. Add hot water
slowly to slake the lime, keeping the mass wet but not submerged. Stir occasion-
ally. Part of the large lumps of lime may be kept out at first and added after
slaking has progressed to some extent, thus prolonging the slaking and heating.
When slaked dilute to 50 gallons. Apply as you would Bordeaux.

SOLUTION FOR SEED TREATMENT.
Formalin.

This is a gas dissolved in water and comes of the strength of 40 per cent.
Should cost about 30 cents a pint or pound, i pmt diluted in 30 gallons of water
is used effectively in preventing potato scab (soak tubers for an hour and a half

\2S, Circular Xo. 2.

and plant in clean soil), or smut of oats and stinking smut of wheat (soak seed in
solution for 10 minutes, drain and let it stand in sacks, 2 hours, dry or sow wet;
or, sprinkle on grain as it is shoveled over on clean floor, i gallon per bushel, cover
with blankets for 2 hours or more. Dry or sow wet.)

Corrosive Sublimate.

This is a poisonous substance. Should be purchased in the powdered form.
Dissolve 4 ozs. in 30 gallons water. Effective as a preventive of potato scab (soak
tubers 30 minutes, allow to stand in sacks overnight). The same strength .solution
should be used in disinfecting wounds made in pruning out blight or cleaning out
cankers on pear and apple trees.

Hot Water.

This is used effectively in preventing the loose smut of wheat and the naked smut
of barley. Immerse the sacks of grain in cold water for 1 2 hours. Drain one hour.
Immerse in hot water at 130° F. for ten minutes. Plant at once. Use one-half
more wheat to make up for grain killed.

other means of controlling plant diseases.

As pointed out in the introduction there are things other than Fungicides that
are of the utmost importance in controlling plant diseases. Often the value of
the application of the fungicide is largely determined by the condition and environ-
ment of the sprayed plants. Some of the most important of these may here be
considered.

Sanitation

This simply means the " cleaning up " of the premises, the yard, the orchard,
the fields and fence rows; keeping the weeds down and the soil cultivated.

Pruning. An orchard of trees full of dead limbs and branches hardly offers
the most satisfactory condition for effective application of spray mixtures. Care-
fully cut out all dead limbs and unnecessary branches. Open up the tops and let
in the light and air. Trim out the water sprouts, clean out the cankers. Treat
all wounds with the corrosive sublimate solution and paint with a good lead and
oil paint. Repeat the painting once or twice a season until the wound is healed.

Burn the brush. Many of our fungous enemies mature and spread as readily
from this fallen brush as if it had remained on the tree. Often a few days delay,
especially in the spring, may suffice to ripen and disseminate the spores, thus
largely undoing the work of pruning, Prune early and bum the brush at once.
The pruning out of such dead and diseased limbs removes a great number of sources
of infection and thus reduces the chances of infecting the healthy limbs and so
directly assists the fungicide in controlling the trouble.

Destruction of diseased plants and plant parts. This practice is of far more im-
portance than is usually accorded it. We well appreciate the necessity of quaran-
tining or destroying animals affected with contagious diseases. Most plant diseases
are contagious. Remove the wilted cucumber vine and bum it as soon as dis-
covered. Remove the smut from the corn and destroy it. Never let it go into the
manure. Cabbage and turnips affected with club root must never be fed to animals
unless boiled thoroughly. Do not throw these diseased plants on another field or
the manure pile. You are thus only spreading the disease. Cut the knots from

Department of Plant Pathology. 429

the plum tree and burn them at once. They should be cut not only from your own
trees but from your neighbors. The wind carries the disease. Pick the old dry
" mummy " plums and peaches from the trees during the autumn or winter and
do not throw them on the ground. This is only wasting your time. The Brown
Rot fungus will mature its spores on these mummies on the ground as readily as
if they remained on the trees. Put the plums in a bag and carry them off and biirn
them. Gather up those that have already fallen to the ground and treat in the
same way. When picking peaches, always pick and destroy all rotten ones. This
is even more important than picking the healthy ones. The rotten potatoes,
turnips, cabbage, etc., from the cellar or store house should not be thrown back
on the fields or manure pile. They may be of some value as fertilizer but they
are dangerous to succeeding crops. Burn or bury them.

Cultivation. The relation of cultivation to the control of plant disease is not
generally appreciated. In many diseases like potato scab, black rot of cabbage,
club root, etc., crop rotation is often the only means of eradicating the disease.
The careful and systematic destruction of weeds not only in the crop but along
the fences and road sides has a direct effect in keeping down certain fungi and
bacteria that live upon these weeds, as w-ell as on the cultivated crop. Often-
times weeds and grass serve to hold moisture in places where it will be favorable
to the development of certain diseases. This is strikingly true of the black rot of
grapes. The fungus is carried over in the old mummies that fall to the ground.
These lying among the weeds and grass that is often allowed to grow up beneath
the vines, find here a more or less constant supply of moisture throughout the sea-
son, enabling them to mature and scatter their spores to the lower leaves and fruits.
Keep the weeds and grass down by cultivation and the " mummies " are unable
to mature spores. Burying the diseased grapes by early plowing and scraping
from beneath the vines into the last furrow with a horse hoe is another practice
to be recommended. The time at which cultivation is done is sometimes an im-
portant factor. For example every bean grower knows that beans should not be
cultivated when wet. He does not usually know however, that this is due to the
fact that the spores of the fungus are scattered only when wet. From this it ap-
pears that intelligent cultivation must take into consideration the diseases with
which the crop is apt to be attacked. A knowledge of the conditions favoring the
parasite as well as of those needed by the crop will be essential. Know the crop
but know its diseases also.

Seed selection

It is well known that seed selection is one of the most important factors in main-
taining the vigor and productiveness of many crops. Its importance as a means
of controlling plant diseases becomes more evident every year. Evidence is con-
stantly accumulating w^hich indicates that many of our common diseases are
regularly and chiefly carried over from one season to the next in the seed. The
smuts of our cereal crops, the scab of potatoes (on tubers), the blight of peas, bean
blight and bean anthracnose are a few of the examples. In the case of some of
these seed selection as a means of eradicating the disease is not practical; in others
it seems to offer the easiest solution of the problem. Beans free from the anthrac-
nose fungus will apparently grow a clean crop. But the disease cannot always be
detected in the seed itself. You cannot sort out the diseased seed. You can how-
ever select pods that are free from the disease. Pods with no spots on them cod-

430 Circular Xo. 2.

tain clean seed. Loose smut of wheat is controlled with difficulty by seed treat-
ment. The selection of seed from fields known to be entirely free from the disease
offers the best means of combating this malady. The selection of seed, from cer-
tain plants in a crop that are unharmed or at least that suffer but slightly from a
given disease is now receiving much attention by plant breeders and pathologists.
The strain thus developed is know as a resistant strain or variety. Remarkable
success has attended the efforts of a number of investigators along this line. This
is a means of combating disease that is within the reach of every grower of crops,
for this tendency toward resistance to disease appears to be quite commonly ex-
hibited by individual plants in any crop when passing through a disease epidemic.
Don't neglect to spray and don't fail to spray thoroughly, but remember at the same
time to keep your plants in proper condition to receive ths most benefit from the spraying.

MAY. 1908 CIRCULAR. No. 3

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Department of Dairy Industry

SOME ESSENTIALS IN CHEESE-MAKING.

By C. a. Publow.
To make cheese is a simple operation; but to make cheese of uniform
fancy quaHty is one of the most difficult problems in the dairy industry.
Many conditions, produced by bacteria, changes of climate and foreign
agents, have their influence on the process of manufacture. In control-
ling these conditions, in order to produce cheese of the highest quality,
five factors must be taken into consideration;

1. The raw material — pure, clean milk.

2. The building and its equipment.

3. The skill of the maker.

4. The direct process of manufacture.

5. The curing and subsequent handling of the cheese.

I. The Milk Supply.

We cannot here go deeply into the methods of earing for milk used in
cheese-making. Suffice it to sa}^ that no milk product requires purer
milk than does American cheddar cheese. The finished cheese can be
no better than the raw material from which it is made. Perfect clean-
liness is the secret of successful cheese-making.

2. The Building.

The building should be so constructed and equipped that everything
used therein may be kept clean. There should be good drainage and a
pure water suppl}'. The curing room should be provided with some
means of controlling the temperature.

3. The Maker.

No profession requires more careful and more skilled mechanics than
does cheese-making. No business demands more responsibility and

431

_^2^2 Circular No. 3.

intelligence. A successful cheese-maker must be quick to think and to
act. He must know his work, and be able to apply his knowledge in
controlling variations caused by climatic, bacterial and chemical agents.
In beginning his daily work, a maker should have clearly in mind the
ideal in the finished cheese, and should conduct his work with this end
in view. This ideal should be perfection; and this demands a knowledge
of all the qualities required in a perfect cheddar cheese.

4. The Manufacture.

Cheddar cheese should have a neat, clean, attractive appearance,
when cut, it should show a close solid, uniformly colored interior. It
should have a clean, pleasant, mild aroma and a nutty flavor. It should
possess a mellow, silky, meaty texture, and when rubbed between the
thumb and forefinger shotild be smooth and free from hard particles.
To make this kind of cheese, we must have milk of good quality. The
following directions will apply only to the making of cheese from clean
sweet milk.

Ripening the milk. — It is necessary' that the milk be heated to 86
degrees Fahr., and that it contain a certain amount of acid before the
rennet is added. The amount of acid is increased by allowing the milk
to stand at the above temperature, or by adding a starter to the milk,
or by both.

Adding starter. — One-half to two per cent, of good commercial starter
may be used, depending on the sweetness of the milk. Too much starter
causes an acid or sour cheese.

To determine acidity. — The acid in the milk is determined by an
acidimeter. When there is .20% acid in the milk, it is ready for the
rennet. At this time a Marshall rennet test will be 2J spaces.

Adding color. — If colored cheese is to be made, the quantity of color
used will depend on the requirements of the market to be supplied.
Generally, J oz. to 2 oz. per 1000 pounds of milk is sufficient. About
I oz. per xooo pounds makes a very desirable color for most markets.
The color should be added to the milk after adding the starter, and be
evenly stirred through the milk to insure a uniform color in the curd.

Adding rennet. — Enough rennet, diluted in cold, pure water, should
be used to coagulate the milk firmly in 25 minutes. Generally, 2 to 4
oz. is necessary for every 1000 pounds of milk. Four to five minutes
should be taken in stirring it in.

Cutting. — When the coagulated milk (curd) will split evenly ahead

Dkpartmext of Dairy Industry. 433

of the fmger, it should be cut as follows: Cut slowly lengthwise of the
vat with a f-inch steel horizontal knife, having sharp edges. Then cut
crosswise of the vat with a iViiich perpendicular wire knife. Finally,
cut lengthwise of the vat with this same wire knife. The cubes resulting
should be of uniform size to insure xmiform development of acid, moisture
and color in the curd and in the cheese. Losses are commonly found in
the whey, due to carelessness or inability in the cutting or in the subse-
quent stirring. The knife should be drawn straight and even, and it
should not overlap the previous cut. Many makers cut too fast. The
faster the cutting, the smaller and more uneven the cubes will be.

Stirring. — This is only to keep the particles separated from each
other and not to harden the curd, as many makers think. The cubes
of curd are very tender and easily injured. If the stirring is roughly
done, small pieces are broken off, which go back into a milky state and
run away in the whey, resulting in serious decrease in the quality of the
cheese. After the cubes are healed over, the stirring may be more active.

Heating. — After stirring for 15 minutes, the temperature should be
raised to 98 to 100 degrees in 30 minutes. It is best to raise the tempera-
ture about 2 degrees every 5 minutes. Heat alone does not firm the
curd. The curd is firmed largely by the effect of the acid, which causes
it to contract and expel the moisture. The faster the acid is developed,
the faster w411 the curd contract. Accompanying the contraction by
heat retains the firmness and prevents reabsorption of whey moisture.

Rule for heating. — When the acidimeter is used for testing, the follow-
ing rule is a reliable guide in heating; If after cutting, the whey around
the curd shows

.14% acid, allow 30 minutes for heating.
.145% acid, " 25
.15% acid, " 20

Heating too fast hardens the outside of the curd and prevents the
escape of moisture. The acid develops from the whey in the curd and
not from the -whey around it, so that if too much moisture is retained in
the curd, the acid develops too fast and an acid or sour cheese results.

The most important step in cheese-making is to have the curd firm in
the whey before the required amount of acid has developed. A large
majority of the acid or sour cheese are caused, not by the maker having
given too much acid, as shown on the hot-iron test, but because the curd
was too soft when that acid developed. One-sixteenth inch (.16%) acid
will make a sour cheese if it develops on a very soft curd and too much

434 Circular Xo. 3.

moisture is retained, while, on the other hand, a dry curd may stand
\ inch (.22%) acid without serious bad effects.

Removing the whey. — The whey should not be removed until the curd
is firm and springy, so that when a quantit}^ is squeezed between the
hands it will spring apart. Generally it takes two to three hours from
the time of adding the rennet to have the curd in this condition. When
firm, the curd should draw | of an inch of fine threads when rubbed on
a clean hot iron. The whey around the cvird should have .165% to
.175% acid, as shown by the acidimeter. This will have to be varied
slightly, depending on the time required for the running of the whey.
The most accurate rule to follow is to have .24% of acid in the whey
running from the curd after it has been stirred dry enough and piled up
for cheddaring. This means about ^ inch on the hot-iron test. It is a
good practice to run the whey down to the lev:^l of the curd in the vat
a few minutes before sufficient acid has developed. This gives better
control over the remainder.

Stirring. — The proper place to stir and dry a curd is in the whey,
from the time the whey has reached the curd level until it is all removed.
This gives a brighter and better color to the curd and is easier than if
stirring is delayed tmtil all the whey has been removed. Too much free
moisture should not be left around or in the curd at this time, as it
causes acid to develop too fast.

Piling. — The curd should be piled along the sides of the vat, with
drains between the piles.

Cheddaring. — As soon as the cvn-d has become matted together suffi-
ciently, it should be cut into strips six tc eight inches wide, and turned
over — the top strip going on the bottom. This takes 15 to 20 minutes
from the time of piling. These pieces should be turned every 1 5 minutes
until a good grain or texture develops. By this we mean that the curd
will fibre out like the cooked meat on a chicken's breast. This fibrous
condition can be hastened by piling the curd two or three layers deep
each time at turning. At this time, the whey oozing from the curd
will show .6590 to .75% S'Cid on the acidimeter, and when a piece of the
curd is rubbed on the hot iron, fine threads will pull about 1 inch long.

Milling.— -The curd should then be cut into small pieces of uniform
size, by a curd mill. In bin'ing a curd mill, it is advisable to get one
in which the cutting is done by the knives going against the curd rather
than one in which the curd goes against the knives. This causes less
loss of fat from the curd.

Dkpartmext of Dairy Ixdustrv. 435

Airing. — After milling, the pieces of curd should be well stirred, kept
apart, and freely exposed to fresh air.

Salting. — After the pieces of curd have become well contracted and
shrunken, with a silky mellow feeling, they are ready to be salted. The
curd will now show about 12 inch on the hot-iron test, and the whey
oozing from the curd will show .9o'^t' to 1.% acid on the acidimeter.
Generally, ih to 2-| pounds of salt per 1000 pounds of milk is sufficient.
The more salt used the drier will be the cheese. The salt should be
evenly distributed over the curd in at least three applications, accom-
panied by plenty of stirring. There should be no lumps in either the
curd or the salt.

Hooping. — As soon as the salt has all been taken up by the curd and
it has become mellow and has cooled to about 85 degrees Fahr., it is
ready for hooping.

Pressing. — The cttrd should be weighed into the cheese hoops to insure
tmiformity in the size of the cheese. Pressure should be light at first,
and be gradually increased. Cheese should remain in the presses at
least 18 hours, and preferably 42 hours.

Dressing. — Too much care cannot be taken in finishing a cheese for
market. It should be ready to dress within 30 to 45 minutes after
pressure is first applied. Then the bandages are pulled up and made
free from wrinkles, and trimmed to about one inch on each end. Plenty
of hot water and clean soft press cloths should be used to insure a good
rind on the cheese. The cheese will have a better finish if it is turned
in the press the following morning. The appearance of a cheese is a
good indication of its quality.

5. The Curing and Subsequent Handling.

Cheese is really only half made when it enters the curing room. From
that time it has to change from a green indigestible product to a fully
ripened palatable and nutritious food. If conditions are not favorable
for a proper ripening, the quality of the cheese is injured. The best
temperature for ripening is 50 to 55 degrees Fahr., and it should be uni-
form. The first week in the life history of a cheese is the most important
period in determining its quality, and conditions should be made favor-
able during that time at least. The room should have good ventilation
and a good circulation of pure air.

Care of curing room. — The cheese shelves should be washed frequently
with boiling water containing a good washing powder, rinsed with hot

43^ Circular No. 3.

salt water, and placed in sunlight to dry. This keeps the ends of the
cheese clean and helps to prevent mould. The cheese should be turned
on the shelves every day.

Paraffining. — When cheese is to be paraffined before shipping, the
paraffining should be done when it is about five days old, with wax
heated to 220 degrees Fahr. The cheese should be left in the wax for
8 to 10 seconds.

Boxing. — The boxes should fit the cheese snugly and be strong enough
to stand shipping.

Branding. — The boxes should have the cheese weight neatly stenciled
in the same place on each box. One should not use a pencil for marking
on the weights, nor use shoe blacking for stenciling. A mixture of coal
oil and lamp black makes the best material, and it will not become blotted.
The weight should be placed in large figures, either directly under
or on the right side of the factory brand, which should be small and
neat. Cheese should not be consumed before it is at least eight weeks
old.

Directions for Using the Acidimeter.

A. Setting up the apparatus. — This can be accomplished most easily
by studying the drawing shown on page 23.

1. Screw the burette holder into the wall at a convenient height for
reading. Then place the burette in the holder, small end down.

2. Arrange a shelf to hold the large bottle, in such a way that the
bottom of the bottle will be on a level with the top of the burette.

3. Another shelf is required to hold the small wash bottle. This
should be on a level with the top of the larger bottle

4. Connect the rubber and glass tubing as shown in the drawing.

5. The small bottle should be kept half full of the same solution as is
used in the larger bottle. This is for washing the carbonic acid from
the air which passes in through the glass tube to give pressure for siphon-
ing.

6. On the large bottle a mark has been filed. Empty the contents
of the small bottle, labeled "alkali," into the large bottle, rinsing it with
soft water so that all the alkali is removed. Fill the large bottle up to
this mark with clean soft water; shake the large bottle to insure a thorough
mixing of the alkali.

7. To start the siphon: Have corks tight in bottles. Loosen clamp on
rubber tube and by aid of the mouth draw the fluid up until all air in

Department of Dairy Industry.

437

the tube is replaced. Then allow the clamp to tighten. On loosening
the clamp again, the solution will run into the burette.

8. The small dropper-bottle contains a solution of phenolphthalein.

B. Making the test. — Measure with the pipette 17.6 c.c of the substance
(milk, whey, cream or starter) which you wish to test, and place it in
the white cup. Add two drops of the phenolphthalein solution. Then
allow the alkaline solution to run into the cup from the burette, one drop
at a time, until the fluid in the cup,
which is being constantly stirred, shows

a very faint pink color. By reading the / /^il' x ["i i^ofrk

graduations on the burette we can ascer-
tain the amount of acid in the sub-
stance tested. Each cubic centimeter of
alkali used represents .01% of acid in the
fluid.

C. Amount of acid to he developed at
each stage. — In cheese-making. —

.20 to .21 % before adding rennet.

.14 to .145% before cooking.

.16 to .18 % before removing whey.

.22 to .24 % when all whey is removed
and curd is packed.

.65 to .75 % before milHng.

.90 to 1.10% before salting.

.70 to .80 % in starter.

In butter -making. — The acidimeter is a
great help in securing a uniform flavor in butter. The amount of acid
should vary with the amount of butter-fat in the cream.

% jat. % acid.
20 72

1 1 \Mder

pipeTTe

^cc burette

&tirnng
Uod

iiAihite Cup

30'
40,

50

•63
•54
•45

D. Precautions. —

1 . Do not place the colored solution in the sunlight.

2. Do not use any solution that has been in the burette over night.
It will have lost its strength.

3. Keep corks tight.

43^ Circular Xo. 3.

4 Great care is necessary in detecting the first change in color. This
is made easier by holding the fluid being tested over the large volume
from which the sample has been taken.

5. Temperature of the milk, whey, etc., has no influence on the result
of the test.

6. Always be accurate in measuring with the pipette, and clean it
each time after using.

7. Use all your tests and special senses. The acidimeter is the best
acid measure we have, and if carefully used is most reliable; but errors
Vv'ill result from carelessness and inability of the user.

CORNELL

IRcaMngsCourse for iTarmers

Published Monthly by the New York State College op Agriculture
AT Cornell University, from November to ]\L\rch, and Entered at
Ithaca as Second-class Matter under Act op Congress, July i6, 1894.
L. H. Bailey, Director. Charles H. Tuck, Supervisor.

SERIES vin.
MISCELLANEOUS.

ITHACA, N. Y.,
NOVEMBER 1907.

N0.36.
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.
A WORD OF GREETING.

Bv The Supervisor.

I-'iG. 370. — A farmers' meeting in session at the College of Agricuihire last zi'inter.

Another Reading-Course season has opened. The thirty regular
J'.ulletins of the Reading-Course are available for study and discussion,
being revised from time to time as the progress of information demands.
Those persons who complete these series are taken into the reading of
books, experiment station bulletins and other literature.

The College recognizes that its information cannot be of the greatest
service if it is held within the confines of the class-rooms and laboratories.
This correspondence course stands as a testimonial of the desire of
the authorities to spread the light of really helpful information wherever
there is just and reasonable need for it. So it is with feelings of pleasure

439

440 Reading-Course for Farmers.

that the correspondence workers greet you, the readers, for another
winter.

Reading-Course and Experiment Station Bulletins.

Our records show that some of the Reading-Course Bulletins have
not been as largely utilized by our readers as they should be. Some
of our best publications have not had the distribution that was their due.
This we hope to remedy by calling your attention from time to time to the
particular kind of helpful information which may be received from some
of these bulletins hitherto not well known. The information in the bul-
letins remains sound year after year.

Not only have we Reading-Course bulletins for such distribution, but
also Experiment Station Bulletins, a list of which appears on the back of
this bulletin. These Station bulletins, somewhat technical in their
nature, have to do with many agricultural problems in different parts of
the State. To be sure, the use of certain of these bulletins is not so per-
tinent in some sections as in others. This winter we shall prepare a list
of these bulletins in such a way that particular localities will be able to
ascertain the information that is applicable to their place. All this will
be arranged so that the quickest information will be furnished in the
most useful way, at the least cost.

Advanced Correspondence Course.

After a reader has completed the Reading-Course bulletins up to date
he is then ready for and should take the work that is known as the
advanced Correspondence Course. This consists, primarily, of the read-
ing of assigned books of well known authorities, on particular phases of
farming. Some twelve or fifteen subjects have been prepared for this
work. \Ye can furnish you the names of the best l)ooks, together with
the price and author. The longer one reads the bulletins, the more one
is convinced that his work should be conducted in a more definite, sys-
tematic way, with such full and accurate information as can be secured
in these well known books.

Trai'eling State Libraries,

It gives up pleasure here to repeat what was said last winted concern-
ing the helpfulness that is offered by the Traveling State Libraries. The
State Department of Education has arranged for distribution a large
number of books which can be secured at a nominal rate for a reasonable
period of time. Definite arrangements have been made, in particular, for
the supplying of agricultural books to farmers. I suggest that each one
interested write to this division of the State Education Department at
Albany to arrange for the securing of these books at an early date.

Agricultural Extension. 441

The Clubs.

Today, more than ever before, the farmer realizes the advantages of
organization. Now, we must not be afraid of this word " organization "
because it may look a httle formal to us. I mean by it, the mere getting
together of neighbor with neighbor for the purposes of discussing, not
only great political issues, but the simple affairs of one another's lives and
work. It happens that farmers are engaged in a business which draws
upon a large number of sciences — a business that affords opportunity
for wide discussion, liberal thinking and careful application. All of this
may be obtained, in the most helpful kind of a way, by small groups of
farmers, their wives and children, coming together at one another's
houses in simple, informal organizations known as Reading-Clubs. This
question was taken up at some length in Bulletin No. 31, published last
v/inter. Suffice it to say now that where this work has been undertaken,
remarkably good results have been secured. The organizations, under
such conditions, have not only been the incentive for securing informa-
tion, but have been of definite value in creating a little social interest
among the people. More than all, there is something in these Clubs that
attracts and holds the attention of the young people. In this one point
alone they have well proved their worth.

Lectures and Literary Entertainments.

The College is placing itself in a position in which it can co-operate
with these Clubs, and with any other kind of an organization which en-
deavors to present in its programs helpful information on agriculture.
It is preparing lecture series, of a popular nature, which will be not only
entertaining for young people, but instructive for all. Lantern slides
will be shown picturing scenes at the College and on actual farms in the
State; literary and historical talks will be given, adding much to the
attractiveness of the meeting. The titles of these lectures for Clubs will
be published in the near future, with a definite statement of the arrange-
ments that may be made with the College for the securing of the enter-
tainment. In this way both the people and the College will come more
closely together, resulting undoubtedly, in the mutual benefit of all.

Some of this work has found its expression in meetings held in coun-
try places near Ithaca. For some few years, students of the College have
been conducting, with the co-operation of the neighboring farmers, meet-
ings in nearby school houses and churches. There, questions of agricul-
tural interests, relative to the particular locality have been discussed, not
only by the students, but by the farmers. Questions have been freely
asked back and forth. A popular entertainment has been furnished by

442 Reading-Course for Farmers,

quartets of singers from the College. The work has progressed without
serious interruption, in the face of many obstacles, to the point where
today it is practically a fixture, both students and farmers feeling that
the discontinuance of it would be a mistake. Wherever possible, at these
meetings, the students have sought to co-operate with such entertain-
ments as already had recognition in such places. For instance, they are
glad to co-operate with a Sunday School entertainment, or a Grange
meeting, or whatever may be recognized as an institution of local import-
ance.

The managing of these experimental meetings, the presenting of talks
at them, raised the important issue as to the fitness of the agricultural stu-
dents individually to conduct the work. As a result of the recognition of
this problem, a course of academic rank has been instituted at the College
which purposes to train young men and women to recognize and meet the
responsibilities and duties which will be theirs on entering the field of prac-
tical work, which will train them to present to the proper people in a plain,
practical, useful way, the information that they may have acquired.
These students are placed at the disposal of accessible meetings. Speakers
from this class will be chosen by competition, only those being sent out
who know the subject matter on which they are to speak, and who have
some little ability to present that subject matter with persuasive force.

Not only are these students available to the people nearby, but we are
now ready to say that in so far as our means will permit and the number
of students will allow, this class is at the service of other organizations
of farmers in the State. The student will be chosen with extreme care.
He wall have the advice of the expert in the department where he is
w^orking, and he will have the criticism of his fellow students, both as
to his information and as to his way of presenting it. When all of this
has been done, he will go out with the approval of the College, to give
just what he gave in competition among other students at the College.
He will be equipped with proper stereopticon apparatus to make his talk
not only instructive, but interesting. He will be sent as much to secure
information from vour experience as to impart information to you. If
you are interested, further details may be secured from the Supervisor.

The New York State Expenineuters' League.

The desire of the peo])le and the College to get together more closely
is finding its expression in different ways. One of the most significant
expressions of this growing bond of sympathy is represented in the New
York State Agricultural Experimenters' League. For several years now
this association has lieen at work proving its right to existence. The
evidence of interest at the annual meeting last winter, held at the State

Agricultural Extexsiox. 443

College, stands as sufficient testimony of the work that it can do.
Seldom has there been an opportunity to attend a meeting where the
intellectual tone and evident sincerity of purpose were more manifest
than when the Experimenters came together last winter. The cut on the
first page shows this meeting in session, with the President, ]Mr. Harry B.
\\'inters, presiding. The students and the farmers are seen sitting to-
gether in the audience. The meeting represents definitely the college in-
fluence in agriculture.

The weakness of many agricultural organizations lies in the fact that
there is not sufficient definiteness of purpose — there is not sufficient
concrete subject matter presented on which the members can work. The
Experimenters' League has remedied this defect to a large extent. The
work of this League is conducted along several different lines. Dairy-
ing, poultry, horticulture, agronomy, plant diseases, entomology, and
several other subjects come in for their share of attention, with experi-
ments outlined, having for their ultimate purpose the securing of in-
formation that will make the man who works in close contact with these
problems more able to help himself. The management of the League
provides definite personal instruction in the execution of these experi-
ments. iMembership in this organization is open to every farmer or per-
son who desires to carry on some kind of experimental work in agricul-
ture. These experiments are not the scientific plans of the Experiment
Station, but they are arranged so that full opportunity for the display of
the farmers' judgment may be had.

League Prices.

So much interest has been aroused in this League that a year ago
prizes were offered for the best work done in different fields. Members
of the League responded to those offers ; several meritorious papers were
presented at the League in competition for the prizes, the first prize
going finall}- to a young man who had shown both practical experience
and sound management.

At the meeting last winter enthusiasm ran high. Several men put
themselves on record as desiring to increase the amount of the prizes.
One hundred dollars finally were raised for this purpose. Anyone hav-
ing either large or small experiments in his farming, if his membership
in the League is paid up, is eligible for this contest. Further regula-
tions may be had by writing to the undersigned.

Formers' Week at the College.

But however great the results of the meeting of the League may have
been, measured by its own standards, still greater was its influence to
incite similar meetings of other organizations at the same time and place.

444 Reading-Course for Farmers.

Inquires concerning the work have crowded in upon us in our cor-
respondence; visitors coming to the College, both as individuals and as
representatives of organizations, impressed us with the necessity of
answering the demand of the people for a definite time during the college
year when the whole institution might be thrown open for inspection,
entertainment and instruction. It, therefore, gives us pleasure to an-
nounce that Director Bailey last spring set aside the week beginning Feb-
ruary i/th, and ending the 22(1, 1908, for a Farmers' Week. It is the
natural outgrowth of the work of the Experimenters' League. There
will be no need for credentials, yet organizations will do well to properly
clothe their representatives with authority. Everyone is invited to come.
It is to be hoped, that the many different agricultural societies of all
kinds will see fit to send delegates to this convention. Reading-Course
Clubs can, at slight expense to their individual members, send a delegate
to this convention, with his expenses paid. The same might well be done
by many other organizations. Arrangements could be made to bring be-
fore these delegates representatives of the dift'erent State institutions and
public corporations which have to do with farmers' interests. In this
way, not only would a helpful co-operation be brought about, but the
farmers would be able to present a solid influential front to those who
are seeking to know their problems better.

The Program.

During this week the different departments of the College will be
open for close inspection. Lectures and demonstrations will be given in
connection with the different lines of work. A Poultry Institute will be
in session during this week, practical demonstration being given along
several lines. Practical lessons in judging dairy cattle wall be given in
the judging pavilion. All departments will contribute their share in
carrying out this educational side of the work. Not only will there be
technical lessons, but lectures with lantern slides of a general kind, both
historical and literary, will be provided for the evenings' entertainments.

Special arrangements will be made for the return of all old students
of the College of Agriculture, regulars, specials and winter-course men.
Headquarters will be given to the different winter-course clubs. Board-
ing and lodging arrangements will be made easily accessible for all the
visitors. Every effort will be made to make of this convention a pleasant
and profitable week for all who may desire to come.

The Coiinfrv School Teacher.

Everyone is appreciative of the great problem which faces the rural
school teacher of today. In the general demands being made upon the

Acpjcri/nRAL Exti-:xston. 445

teacher for the introduction of agriculture in the rural school, one must
appreciate that the teacher has not always had the facilities that should
have been available for acquiring this knowledge. At this farmers' con-
vention, a special program of instruction for rural school teachers will be
presented, having for its purpose the interpretation in practical lessons
of the agricultural work called for by the syllabus of the New York State
Department of Education. That there is a desire on the part of teachers
to attend such a meeting was shown by the talks that were given at the
Experimenters' meeting last winter. Three teachers presented good ad-
dresses on rural school education. These addresses should have been
heard by all the rural teachers of the State. In order that the demand
for instruction on this subject may be satisfied, to a degree, the College
of Agriculture will open all her public school teaching facilities at the
time to the use of the rural school teachers.

On Friday evening of the week a general assembly of all the different
clubs and visitors will be held in the large auditorium of the College.
Here an address will be given by Director Bailey. Prominent farmers
of the State will take part in a short program, which will then be followed
by a social evening.

Details of the arrangements for the week, together with programs,
may be secured by writing to the author of this article.

Charles H. Tuck,
Supervisor Farmers' Reading-Course.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION.

The Following Bulletins are Available for Distribution to Those Residents
OF New York State Who May Desire Them, as Long as the Supply Lasts.

93 The Cigar-Case Bearer.
121 Suggestions for Planting Shrubbery.
129 How to Conduct Field Experiments with

Fertilizers, 1 1 pp.
134 Strawberries under Glass.
13 s Forage Crops.

136 Chrysanthemums.

137 Agricultural Extension Work, vSketch of

its Origin and ■Progress.

139 Third Report upon Japanese Plums.

140 Second Report upon Potato Culture.

141 Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death

Among Swill-Fed Hogs.

142 The Codling-Moth.

143 Sugar Beet Investigations.

144 Suggestions on Spraying and on the San

Jose Scale.

145 Some Important Pear Diseases.

146 Fourth Report of Progress on Extension

Work.

147 Fourth Report upon Chrysanthemums.

149 Quince Curculio.

150 Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control.

151 Gravity or Dilution Separators.

152 Studies in Milk Secretion.

153 Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries.

154 Table for Computing Rations for Farm

Animals.

155 Second Report on the San Jose Scale.

157 Grapevine Flea-Beetle.

158 Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bac-

teria in Cheese Curd.

162 The Period of Gestation in Cows.

163 Three Important Fungus Diseases of the

Sugar Beet.

164 Peach Leaf-Curl.

165 Ropiness in Milk and Cream.

166 Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898.

168 Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms;

II.
J 70 Tent Caterpillars.
I 7 I Concerning Patents on Gravity or Dilution

Separators.
172 The Cherry Fruit-Fly; A New Cherry Pest.
17s Fourth Report on Japanese Plums.
176 The Peach-Tree Borer.
180 The Prevention of Peach Leaf-Curl.
182 Sugar Beet Investigations for 1899.
i8s The Common European Praying Mantis; A

New Beneficial Insect in America.

186 The Sterile Fungus Rhizoctonia.

187 The Palmer Worm.

188 Spray Calendar.

189 Oswego Strawberries.

190 Three Unusual Strawberry Pests and a

Greenhouse Pest.

192 Further Experiments against the Peach-

Tree Borer.

193 Shade Trees and Timber Destroying Fungi.

194 The Hessian Fly. Its Ravages in New

York in 1 901 .
19s Further Observations upon the Ropiness

in Milk and Cream.
196 Fourth Report on Potato Culture.

198 Orchard Cover Crops.

199 Separator Skimmed Milk as P'ood for Pigs.

200 Muskmelons.

206 Sixth Report of Extension Work.

207 Pink Rot an Attendant of Apple Scab.

208 The Grape Root Worm.

209 Distinctive Characteristics of the Species

of the Genus Lecanium.

210 Commercial Bean Growing in New York.
212 Cost of Producing Eggs. Second Report.

215 The Grape Leaf-Hopper.

216 Spraying for Wild Mustard and the Dust

Spray.

219 Diseases of Ginseng.

220 Skimmed Milk for Pigs.

221 Alfalfa in New York.

222 Attempt to Increase the Fat in Milk by

Means of Liberal Feeding.
22s Bovine Tuberculosis.

227 Cultivation of Mushrooms by Amateurs.

228 Potato Growing in New York.

231 Forcing of Strawberries, Tomatoes, Cu-

cumbers and Melons.

232 Influence of Fertilizers upon the Yield of

Timothy Hay.

233 Two New Shade-Tree Pests.

234 The Bronze Birch Borer.

23 s Cooperative Spraying Experiments.

237 Alfalfa — -A Report of Progress.

238 Buckwheat.

2^9 Some Diseases of Beans.

240 The Influence of Mushrooms on the

Growth of Some Plants.

241 Second Report on the Influence of Fertili-

zers on the yield of Timothy Hay.

242 Cabbages for Stock Feeding.

243 Root Crops for Stock Feeding.

244 Culture and Varieties of Roots for Stock

Feeding.

245 Spray Calendar.

246 A Gasoline- Heated Colony Brooder-House.

247 The Importance of Nitrogen in the Growth

of Plants.

248 New Poultry .appliances.

249 Comparison of Four Methods of Feeding

Early Hatched Pullets.

Address,

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

ITHACA, N. Y.

446

SUPPLEMENT TO

CORNELL

1ReaMng:=Course for Jfarmers

Published Monthly by the New York State College of Agriculture
AT Cornell University from November to March, and Entered at
Ithaca as Second-class Matter under Act of Congress July i6, i89"4.
L. H. Bailey. Director.

SERIES VIII. ITHACA. X. Y. No. 36.

MISCELLANEOUS. NOVEMBER, 1907. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.

A Discussioii-I^apcr is sent out 7citJt all Fanners' Reading-Course
Bulletins, for tzeo reasons: (i) Jl'e should like to haz'e \our ozcn ideas
on tliese subjeefs. On some of tJiese points \ou haz'e probably had
cxpeiience tJiat zeill be interesting and I'alnable to us. A^o matter zvhat
the Bulletin says, if you haz'e different opinions on any of tJiese subjeefs,
do not hesitate to state tJiem on tliis paper and giz'e your reasons. (2)
IVc should like you to use tliis paper on zehicJi to ask us questions. If
there are any points zeliich tlie Bulletin has not made clear or if there are
any problems in your farming, zcJiether on tJiese subjects or others, on
zvhich you think zve may be able to help you, zvrite to us on tJiis paper.

The Next Reading-Course Bulletins will be sent to those who
return to us this discussion-paper, which will be an acknowledg-
MENT TO THE RECEIPT OF THE BULLETIN. TJiis paper z^'Ul uot be returned
to yon, but zee shall look it over as carefully as zve zconld a personal
letter and zcrite to you if there are any points about zvhich corres-
pondence is desirable. You may consider this discussion-paper then, as
a personal letter to us. It zvill be treated as such, and under no circum-
stances zvill your remarks be made public. As the Discussion-paper zvill
contain zvritten matter, it zvill require letter postage.

If you are not interested in this Reading-Course Bulletin, zve have
others on other subjects, and zve shall be glad to send any of these to you
on request. The titles of the sis Series of the Reading-Course Bulletins
nozv available are: i. The Soil and the Plant. 2. Stock Feeding.
3. Orcharding. 4. Poultry. 5. Dairying. 6. Farm Buildings and
Yards. Helps for Reading, in The Farmers' JViz'es' Reading-Course,
on domestic subjects, is also sent to those zvho desire it.

447

448 Readixg-Course i-oR Farmers.

These Bulletins can not be sent to persons who reside outside
OF THE State of Xew York, as both courses are supported by a
State appropriation.

Now is the time to take a strong, sharp hold of reading and study
for the winter. Clubs are to be organized ; literary programs full of
agricultural information must be prepared. In all this the College of
Agriculture stands ready to help and be helped. Feel free to use its
extension facilities as suggested in the bulletin.

Notice the Farmers' Week to be held in February. Ff you want to
help, please fill out the following blanks :

What are your desires in the way of reading for this winter?

Do you want further information concerning Farmers' Week?

Agricultural Extension. 449

jive the names i
addi

Give the names with the presidents' and secretaries' names and
h-esses of all agricultural organizations with which you are connected.

15

450 Reading-Course for Farmers.

We want to make a directory of all agricultural organizations in the
State, no matter how small. Please give us the names of such organiza-
tions of general farmers, dairymen, fruit-growers, poultrymen,
gardeners, bee-keepers, or others, in your township or county. Do not
forget the names and addresses of the presidents and secretaries.

Name

Date

County Postoffice

Mote. — Your name appears on our mailing list as tliis Bulletin is
addressed. If incorrect, please write us.

Address all correspondence to Farmers Reading-Course, Ithaca, N. Y.

CORNELL

1ReabinG*Course for Jfarmers

Published Monthly by the New York State College of Agriculture
AT Cornell University, from November to March, and Entered at
Ithaca as Second-class Matter under Act of Congress, July i6, 1894.
L. H. Bailey, Director. Charles H. Tuck, Supervisor.

SERIES vm.

MISCELLANEOUS.

ITHACA, N. Y.
DECEMBER 1907

No. 37.

DRAINAGE.

Supplement to BuH. No. 2.

DRAINAGE AND LARGER CROPS.

By E. O. FippiN.

The first four bulletins in the
Reading-Course series are devoted
to the soil as a medium for plant
growth. In the first bulletin, the
general characteristics of soil are
stated. In the third bulletin, rhe
plant- food supply in the soil — its
kinds, amounts and means of in-
crease by the use of fertilizers and
manures — is discussed. The fourth
bulletin shows how the plant takes
its food from the soil, and the sec-
ond bulletin explains some of the
ways in which the soil may be
modified by means of tillage and
drainage so that it will be a more
congenial home for the plant. The
discussion in these bulletins implies
that the plant requires a number
of things for its growth. It must
have food, moisture, light, heat
and air ; and in addition all our
common plants have root systems
adapted not only to taking in food,
but al.so to holding the plant in its
normal position so that it can grow
properly and naturally.

Fig. 3-].

-Dig^iiii^ a main diich by
hand in stony soil.

If just the right amount and kind of any one of these essential condi-
tions for growth are withheld, the development of the plant is impaired.
For example, if there is not enough food the plant will be small and
stunted in appearance. A low temperature may hinder or even prevent
the normal growth and development of the individual.

451

452

Reading-Course for Farmers.

Effect of too much zuatcr.

As is explained in Bulletin 2, water may be present in the soil in
such large amounts as to interfere with the growth of the plant. It
causes this injury in several ways. In fact, it has some influence on
nearly every one of the essential conditions of growth ; and this influence
is generally detrimental.

To understand this point, it must be remembered that water is held
in the soil in several ways. If soil is placed in a funnel and water poured
upon it and the soil is then permitted to stand for a time, part of the water
passes through and out of the soil. But a considerable part of the water is
held by the soil by capillarity and it then appears nicely moist. All our
common crops are adapted to using this capillary moisture and any other

J

,..*^

wm

Jm^^ . ' ^

1'

M .^^

^^

iP'': ''"^

''^^'^'411^

- ^'si:;

^y:.

mtt:'ir^

^^ftSLn^idlSa&kjJ

g^"'""^'--^

.& A^.'^ -^f

• ■-''■'' ■'i- ■ •■ ■ -^5^

J,-. ,«?«**■...!*:♦';;. ,

mssi HiffiiBSL^'^'=^^>f

tS&k '"^

ijMlii^^

• ^^5^:

?S;PR'.--

Fig. 372. — Clay suil badly in need of tile drainage. Nczi' York.

form of moisture is injurious to them. They are not adapted to living in
it just as a man is not adapted to living in water. If by means of a cork
in the funnel this gravity water is retained, it tends to " drown " the roots
or limit their development in proportion as the whole mass of soil is
saturated. It shuts out the air, locks up plant-food, renders the soil more
cold than it would otherwise be, and in addition it renders the soil soft
and miry, a condition especially undesirable for the practice of tillage.

The removal of this surplus water from the soil is termed land or
agricultural drainage.

AT red of drainage in A^e^u York.

In New York State, millions of acres of land would be benefitted by
drainage. In the northern part of the State around Lake Ontario are
large areas of clay land, the productiveness of which is greatly reduced
because of their flat surface and dense character. In the southern part

Drainage and Larger Crops.

453

of the State are large areas of hill land which, by reason of particular
structural features, are too wet during some part of the growing season.
In addition to these two classes of land, there is throughout the State in
detached areas a large amount of swamp or marshy land which is now
useless for tillage purposes.

These statements suggest that there are two types of land which
would be benefited by drainage :

1st. Land which is continually submerged or saturated. This
includes the marsh and swamp land.

2d. Land which is saturated or partially submerged during

Fig. 27S. — Clay soil being pJozvcd in eight steti la)ids. The
" dead furroivs " serve as surface drains.

some part of the crop season. This includes large areas throughout
the State now included in cultivated fields. It is always of uncer-
tain productiveness and its full productive power is seldom realized.

Kinds of drains and their use.

Two types of drainage may be used to improve wet land. These are :
ist. Open or surface drains ; 2d. Buried or under-drains, constructed
of tile, stone, brush, boards, poles or any other available medium. Of
the two types, the under-drains are always preferable where they may
be used and there are very few situations where they will not be effective.
In fact, their range of usefulness is far greater than is commonly be-
lieved. The best form of construction is the hard burned tile of sizes
adapted to the local conditions and buried at depths of two to four feet,
according to circumstances. They are very effective, long lived, without

454

Reading-Course for Far:^iers.

cost of maintenance and do not interfere with tillage. In all these re-
spects they are preferable to open drains.

However, there are some situations where it is desirable or even
necessary to use the surface drains, — for example, where there is no
proper outlet as in very low river bottoms ; where the soil is especially
fine textured and dense or where only a temporary effect is desired.

On all land requiring drainage, the local peculiarities of the soil, sur-
face topography and outlet will determine just the kind of system which

Fig. 374. — A thorough system of surface drains in a nczdy seeded grain held.

should be established. Y&ry frequently the advice of one acquainted
with the peculiarities of soils is necessary in choosing the correct system.

Types of drai)iagc systems.

Contrary to common opinion, it is not necessary to install a regular
system of drains to secure large and profitable returns. I mean by
this lines of tile regularly placed at intervals of 50 or 100 feet. The
expense of such a system is great and a considerable period of time is
required for the improvement to pay the cost. In fact, only a small
part of the land in need of drainage requires such systematic treatment
because the surface is generally uneven, the water accumulates in a few
places or comes from a single limited source. A line of tile intercepting
the supply or laid in the center of the area of accumulation, will usually
remove the surplus water quickly before it has a chance to affect the

Drainage and Larger Crops.

455

adjoining land. Drains arranged in low or springy places will generally
greatly improve the productiveness of the land at a small expenditure

per acre.

Returns from drainage.
There are two classes of returns from drainage. One has to do with
the healthfulness of a region, the other with the money income. It is
especially to be remembered that the land in need of drainage is just the
land which, when drainage is established, gives the largest crops. Some
of the most productive lands of the country at the present time are the
lands on which drainage was necessary.

Fk

375. — The result of poor drainage in a peach
orchard. Many trees missing.

Effects of drainage.

The effects of drainage, as was indicated above, are numerous and far
reaching. Seven fundamental beneficial effects may be mentioned here :

1. Drainage removes the excess or gravitational water. — that is
the water which is free to move under the influence of gravity. It
should be remembered that all the water which flows away in the
drain would be directly injurious if not removed.

2. Drainage firms the soil. A wet soil is soft and miry. The
water acts as a lubricant to the soil particles, permitting them to
move freely so that they will suj^port very little weight. This is
especially inconvenient in all cultural operations.

456

Reading-Course for Farmers.

3. Drainage increases the depth of root penetration. The
greater the area through which the roots are spread, the larger is the
reservoir of food and moisture they have available. It is even more
important that they penetrate deep than that they spread far later-
ally, because the benefit is proportionately greater. Poor or partial
drainage forces the roots to develop near the surface where they are
quickly subject to local changes.

Fig. 376. — A traction ditching machine in operation on clay loam soil at the New

York State College of Agriculture.

4. Drainage increases the available moisture. By causing im-
provement of the tilth of the soil, it increases its capacity to hold
capillary moisture. Therefore, drainage is good for both dry and
wet weather.

5. Drainage warms the soil, and thereby not only hastens growth
but also gives a longer crop season. Water requires more heat to
warm it a given amount than does soil. In addition and more
important, it requires several hundred times more heat to evaporate
water than is required to increase the temperature of the same
volume of water a moderate amount.

6. Drainage increases the supply of available plant-food, parti-
cularly nitrogen.

Drainage and Larger Crops. 457

7, Drainage reduces greatly the heaving of soil and the conse-
quent injury to winter crops.
The principles and practice of drainage are explained in the following
publications to which the reader may refer if further information is
desired :

1. Engineering for land drainage. C. G. Elliott. John Wiley &
Sons, New York. This is less technical in its treatment than may be
inferred from its title.

2. Land Drainage. Many Miles. Orange, Judd Co.

3. Physics of Agriculture. F. H. King. Orange, Judd Co.

4. Irrigation and Drainage. F. H. King. Macmillan Co.

5. Draining for profit and Draining for health. G. E. Waring.
Orange, Judd Co.

6. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. Vol. L Macmillan Co.

7. Farmers' Bulletin 187. Drainage of farm land. U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Free.

SUPPLEMENT TO

CORNELL

1ReabinG=Course for jfarmers

PuBLisnKi) Monthly iiy tmk Nkw 'S'okk Statu Coli.uc.f. of Ac.uiculturk
AT Cornell Univkrsity fkom Novf.mukk to March, and Entf.rrd at
Ithaca as Sf-cond-c-lass Matter under Act op Congress July i6, 1894.
L, H. Bailey, Director.

SERIES VIII. ITHACA, N.Y. DRAINAGE.

MISCELLANEOUS. DECEMBIiR, 1907. Supplement to BuH. No. 2

DISCUSSION-PAPER ON FARMERS* READING-COURSE

BULLETIN No. 37.

A Discnssioii-papcr is sent oat with all I'armcrs Rcarincj-Course
BiiUctins, for hco reasons: (i) U'c sJioitId like to ha^r your oivii ideas
on these subjects. On some of these points yon have probably had
experience that 7eill be interesting and valuable to us. Xo matter i^'hat
the Bulletin says, if you lurve different opinions on any of these subjects,
do not hesitate to state them on this paper and (jive your reasons. (2)
We should like you to use this paper on li'hich to ask us questiotis. If
there are any points 7ehich the Jhilletin has not made clear or if there are
any problems in. your farmimj, :ehether on these sul>jects or others, on
whicli you think t^v ;/;(/v be able to help you, write to us on this paper.

Tnn: Next Ri^.xdixc.-Coursic IJuLLiyii.NS wii.i. r.i-: .sicnt to tiiosk who

RETURN to U.S TIII.S DiSCU.SSION-I'A I'lCR, WlllC II W ILL !!!■: AN AtK NOWLKDH-

MF.NT TO TIT!': RKCi:! I'T OF Till'. lUiLLhyiTN. 77//.S- paper will not be returned
to you, but 7^'e shall look if oi'er as carefully as lee would a personal
letter and write to you if there are any points about ■rchich corres-
pondence is desirable. Von ma\ consider this Discussion-paper then, as a
personal letter to us. It will be treated as such, and under no circum-
stances 7cill your remarks be made public. .Is Ihe Piscnssion-papcr zvill
contain i^'ritten matter, it 7eill require letter postage.

If you are not interested in this Reading-Course Bulletin, we have
others on other subjects, and :ce shall be glad to send any of these to you
on request. The titles of the six Series of the Reading-Course Jhilletins
now available arc: i. Tiik Soil axd tiii-: I'lant. 2, Stock I^keoing.
3. Orcharding. 4, Poultry. 5. Daikving. 6. Farm Buildings and
Yards. 7. IIkli-s for Reading. Helps for Reading, in The Farmers'

lVi7>es' Reading-Course, on domestic subjects, is also sent to those who
desire it.

459

460 Reading-Course for Farmers.

The New York State College of Agriculture is especially interested at
this time in getting in touch with as many persons in the State as possible
who have had experience in land drainage, particularly under-drainage.
New York State conditions are different in many respects from those of
other States, therefore we desire to secure two kmds of information
about drainage : first, the cost of drainage on as many different soils and
under as many kinds of conditions as possible ; second, the opinions of
persons experienced with drains as to the benefits resulting therefrom.
The inclosed Reading-Course bulletin will suggest to our readers some-
thing of the importance and possibilities of this form of improvement in
the State. We would like the cooperation of our readers in collecting this
information which we hope to give at an early date either in part or in
whole to the people of the State in the form of a preliminary bulletin on
Drainage in New York. If you have had any experience in drainage, will
you please aid us by answering the following questions : or if you have
had no such experience but know of a neighbor who has had experience,
will 3^ou please have him answer the questions or give us his name and
address ?

I. Have you had experience in underdraining land?

2. Where? County? Town?

3. How many acres did you drain?

4. How many rods of tile in system?

'^.

V-*'.

Drainage axd Larger Crops. 461

5, How many rods of each size of tile was used?

6. How deep were the tile placed?

7. About what was the fall per 100 feet?

8. On what kind of soil?

9. Was the land level or rolling?

10. What crops were grown on the land?

II. What were the benefits from drainage?

12. What was the cost per rod of completing the drainage?
(Important.)

13. What kind of tile were used, hard or soft?

462 Reading-Course eor Farmers,

14. Did you notice any injury from frost?

15. What experience with stone or other forms of under drains?

16. What was their cost per rod?

CORNELL

IReabingsCourse for jfarmers

Published Monthly by the New York State College of Agriculture
AT Cornell University, from November to March, and Entered at
Ithaca as Second-class Matter under Act of Congress July,i6, 1894.
L. H. Bailey, Director.

SERIES VIII.
MISCELLANEOUS.

ITHACA, N. Y.,
JANUARY, 1908.

No. 38.
EXPERIMENTS.

FARMERS' COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS

The following schedule gives a list of the demonstrations or experi-
ments that are to be tried by New York State farmers in the season of
1908. These experiments cover some of the most important of the newer
problems that are just now pressing themselves on the attention of our

717

No treatment

3520 lbs. hay per acre

716
160 lbs. nitrate soda
320 lbs. acid phosphate
5820 lbs. hay per acre

715
160 lbs. nitrate soda
5590 lbs. hay per acre

Fi^- ZIT- — titrate of soda alone gives nearly as good yield as nitrate of soda and

acid phosphate combined.

farmers. The list contains enough subjects to offer to every farmer one
or two for his particular study. We desire to correspond with any per-
son in the State who may wish to take up any one or more of these sub-
jects on his own place.

We will be glad to also hear from any farmer who desires to conduct
experiments not here listed and to give such aid as may be possible.

There are two purposes of co-operative experiments: (i) to teach;
(2) to discover new truth.

I. The gradually changing soil conditions as our lands become older,
the rapidly changing prices of labor and farm produce and the constant
discoveries of new scientific facts make it necessary that the farmer

463

464 Reading-Course for Farmers.

be ever alert, and ready to change his farm practice to meet the constantly
changing conditions. To meet these conditions there is a growing ten-
dency among farmers to experiment. These trials are sometimes made
by such imperfect methods that the wrong conclusions may be drawn.
The first purpose of co-operative experiments is to encourage such trials
by methods that are accurate but not complicated — to set each man
to working out his own problems, to learn from the experience of others,
to bring him in touch with the latest results of experiment station work
in order that he may test these results and determine whether they may
lead to a more profitable method of farming his land.

2. The second but equally important object of this work is the dis-
covery of new truth, either in determining how wide an application the
results of experiment station work have, or in solving problems that
from their nature cannot be worked out at the experiment station. Each
farmer who reports on an experiment thereby contributes to this increased
knowledge of agriculture and has benefited every other farmer in the
State.

These demonstrations and experiments are in ten divisions, each
division in charge of a specialist: I. Agronomy, J. L. Stone and G. F.
Warren ; II. Plant Selection and Breeding, H. J. Webber ; III. Horti-
culture, L. B. Judson ; IV. Entomology, M. V. Slingerland ; V. Animal
Husbandry, H. H. Wing; VI. Poultry Husbandry, J. E. Rice; VII.
Dairy Industry, R. A. Pearson; VIII. Plant Diseases, H. H. Whetzel;
IX. Soils, E. O. Fippin ; X. Experimental Agronomy, T. L. Lyon.

All correspondence should be addressed to C. H. Tuck, Ithaca, N'. Y.,
who will take up your problem with the Department concerned. Specify
by number the experiments in which you are interested.

The general plan of work is mutual or co-operative — the farmer to
provide land and labor, the expert to give advice and council. In a few
cases where seed and materials cannot be readily purchased, they are
furnished by the College. The person on whose farm the experiment
is made should make reports so that the results may be given to others.

It will be impossible, of course, to serve everyone. Persons who
desire to engage in this work should apply quickly. Full instructions,
together with blanks for the making of reports, will be sent to applicants.
Let us make 1908 a record breaker for handling practical experiments
in the field and barn.

I. FIELD CROPS.

By J. L. Stone and E. R. Minns.
No. 4. Potatoes. — Test of varieties. Five pounds of each of three
selected varieties will be furnished by the College, to be planted on a
definite area, and crop weighed.

Farmers' Cooperative Experiments. 465

Corn. — Test of varieties. Packages of each of three varieties will
be furnished by the College, to be planted on a definite area and crop
weighed.

No. 5. SiuiHoivcr in corn for silage. Seed will be furnished for a test.

No. 6. Soy Beans. — A test of several varieties with a view to
determine adaption to growing with corn to improve the quality of silage.

(Experiments at the Cornell station indicate that this desirable natural
Stock food may be grown to advantage in New York.)

No. 118. Spraying for wild mustard. — Mustard can be easily killed
by proper spraying with copper sulphate or iron sulphate. Correspond-
ence solicited.

No. 109. Mangels. — A test of mangels as a partial substitute for
purchased concentrated feeds.

Some experiments have seemed to show that a pound of dry matter in
mangels has about the same feeding value as a pound of grain feeds.
Mangels may be looked upon as equivalent to the concentrates plus
water. At this experiment station in 1904-5 they have given over twice
as much feeding value per acre as the same land would produce in corn.
The labor required to grow them is considerable. Mangels have a special
value to those dairymen who do not have silos as they add a needed suc-
culence to a ration that is ordinarily too dry. A porus soil that is well
manured and free from weeds will produce the best crop at the least
labor expense. Directions for making a trial of mangels based on the
variety and cultural trials at the college will be furnished. The farmer
to report his yield and success with them.

G. F. Warren and P. J. White.

No. loi. Alfalfa. — A test of different soil treatments and methods
of seeding in order to determine if alfalfa can be grown on the experi-
menter's farm and to determine how best to grow it. Full directions
for making such a test, based on knowledge obtained from previous
experiments will be furnished by the College, the experimenter to report
the results from each treatment.

No. 106. Hairy Vetch. — A test of the value of rye or wheat and
winter vetch as a soiling crop for early summer feeding or as a cover
crop to be plowed under for soil improvement. Hairy vetch is a promis-
ing legume for either of these purposes.

No. 108. Red Clover. — For farms that once grew clover but now
fail to do so. A test of different soil treatments in order to determine if
possible, what method will succeed in producing clover, also an examina-
tion of specimens for diseases or insects.

No. no. Renewal of pastures and meadozvs without plowing. —
Usually the best way to renew grass land is to farm it a year or more and

466 Reading-Course for Farmers.

then reseed, but with the present high price of labor and low price of
land, it is in many cases desirable to" make an effort to improve the
pasture or meadow without plowing. There are also pastures that cannot
be plowed, that might be considerably improved. Directions for this work
will be furnislied.

No. III. Varieties of grasses for permanent pastures. — A trial of
several kinds of grasses for permanent pastures. This experiment is
designed for those who have some plowed land which they expect to seed
for a permanent pasture, or a pasture that is to last four or more years.

No. 114. Fertilisers for meadows. — Experiments at the College have
shown that certain fertilizers may be used to profit in growing hay
on our soil. Last year 29 farmers tried this experiment. Those who
raised a fair crop of hay without any treatment, usually obtained a profit-
able increase from using one of the fertilizer treatments. Those whose
yields were poor without fertilizers usually did not find it profitable to
use fertilizers. We desire a number of such trials this year. The Col-
lege will furnish fertilizers ready for application to a limited number
who will apply them to four measured plots 1x4 rods each, weigh the
hay produced on each plot, and report results. The hay may be weighed
with a spring balance. The trial is to be made on a meadow that has a
good stand of grass. Those who wish to make a trial on a larger area
will be given directions for the purchase and use of larger quantities of
the same mixtures.

No. 119. Cost and profit or loss in different parts of the farm busi-
ness. — Farmers usually know what income is derived from dififerent
crops and animals but few know the cost of production. To keep an
account with a few of the most important parts of the farm business is
not a difficult matter. To keep a systematic set of accounts is more
valuable and more difficult. Directions for either kind of accounts will
be sent and in return we desire to receive the summaries, such as the
cost of producing dififerent crops.

II. PLANT SELECTION AND BREEDING.

H. J. Webber.

No. 124. Potatoes. — An experiment in selection by hills for the pur-
pose of increasing the yield.

No. 125. Corn. — An experiment in selection and breeding with a
view to developing an improved strain, (a) For silage or (b), for
grain.

No. 126. Oats. — (a) An experiment in selection by individual
])lants for the purpose of improving the yield, (b) An experiment in
the selection of large heads to increase yield.

Farmers' Cooperative Experiments. 467

No. 127. Wheat. — (a) An experiment in selection by individual
plants to improve the variety, (b) An experiment in the selection of
large heads to increase the yield.

Note: Detailed plans of conducting the experiments will be fur-
nished to interested parties.

III. HORTICULTURE.

L. B. JUDSON.

No. 30. Orchard cover crops. — 3 plats. A comparison of the values
of hairy vetch, Canadian field peas, and mammoth clover, in apple, plum,
pear, or peach orchard. All plats in cover-crop experiments j4, acre in
extent. Keep soil thoroughly stirred from spring until middle of July,
when seed should be sown. Seed furnished by the College.

No. 31. Mulching versus cover-cropping. — x\ comparison of these
two methods in the same orchard, to show the effect on yield, color,
and size of fruit. This will make an interesting experiment with any
kind of tree fruits, but especially apples and pears. This line of experi-
mentation is one of the most interesting, important and practical now
before fruit growers in this state, and any capable grower can readily
obtain valuable results. Particulars sent on application.

No. ;^2. Spraying experiment. — Compare the effect of ordinary Bor-
deaux mixture (4-4-50) with the weaker mixture, (3-3-50), both as to
control of scab and amount of spray injury. In mixing the Bordeaux
always put in the water between the other two materials. See directions
in the recent Spray Calendar. Write for record blanks.

No. 33. Dipping trees before planting. — Fumigation of nursery stock
seems frequently to be either ineffective in destroying insects, or in-
jurious to the trees, and it is very desirable to know whether dipping the
trees completely in warm lime-sulfur wash, thus insuring destruction
of scale, will prove injurious to the trees. Dip both tops and roots in
lime-sulfur wash, coating them completely, then plant these trees side by
side with untreated trees from the same lot. Write for details.

No. 34. Thinning fruit. — Conduct tests on early apples, peaches and
plums. Write for details.

No. 35. Strazvberries and raspberries. — Test the varieties, both
standard and new. Write for record blanks.

No. 36. Cabbage. — Testing varieties. Seed furnished by the College.

No. 37. Pumpkins. — Nearly every farmer grows pumpkins, but the
crop is too often small, belated and lacking of uniformity. Here is an
excellent chance for a practical application of plant breeding, where in-
tensely interesting as well as profitable results may be obtained by any
farmer. The method is simply to save seed from pumpkins selected
according to the following points: i. Number of fruits to the vine.

468 Reading-Course for Farmers.

2. Earliness, 3. Uniformity. 4. Thickness of flesh. 5. Color of flesh.
Write for further details. Seed furnished by the College.

IV. ENTOMOLOGY.
M. V. Slingerland.

No. 41. Poison sprays for plum and quince ctirculios. — Experiments
with arsenate of lead and arsenite of lime sprays. Specific directions
and arsenate of lead furnished by the college. Desire to co-operate with
peach growers especially in experiments against the curculio.

No. 42. Spraying for grape root-zvorm. — Experiments with arsenate
of lead spray to poison the beetles. Specific directions as given in Bul-
letin 235 or the Spray Calendar.

No. 43. Spraying and timely cultivation for the rose-chafer. — Spe-
cific advice in regard to time to cultivate to kill the pupas, and directions
given for spraying with arsenate of lead to kill the beetles. Poison fur-
nished by the College.

No. 44. Spraying for oyster-shell bark-scale and scurfy bark-scale
in June with soapp or oils. Specimens desired at intervals of a week be-
ginning about June ist to determine date of hatching of eggs in different
parts of the State. Experiments to begin as soon as the eggs hatch.

No. 45. Oil sprays for the San Jose scale. — Experiments with the
miscible oil sprays. Specific directions given and part of material fur-
nished by the College.

V. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.

H. H. Wing.

No. 50. Cattle. — The information sought will include (a) period of
gestation of cows, (b) sex of offspring, (c) weight of offspring at birth,
(d) in case where calves are raised or vealed weight at four, six and
eight weeks of age. To those who undertake this work cards for mak-
ing report will be furnished on request.

No. 51. Szvine. — The information asked for will include (a) period
of gestation, (b) number of offspring, (c) sex of offspring, (d) weight of
litter and if possible of each individual at birth. To those who under-
take this work, cards for making reports will be furnished on request.

VI. POULTRY HUSBANDRY.

J. E. Rice.

No. 60. Importance of supplying grit to fozvls to determine the
amount consumed, the best kind, and the effect upon the quantity of
eggs, hardness of shell, and in preventing " egg eating."

Farmers' Cooperative Experiments. 469

No. 61. The importance of meat in a ration for egg-production, and
to observe the effects upon number, size and fertility of eggs and vitality
of chickens.

No. 62. Tlie value of a ration of ivholc grain as compared to the
same ration part of which is ground and fed dry or fed in a " hot mash."

No. 63. Comparative value of hot mash and the same feed fed dry.

No. 64. Breed test. — A comparison of pens of the same number of
individuals of different varieties of similar age.

No. 65. Making observations and post mortem examination to deter-
mine the cause and cure of zvhitc diarrhoea in chickens. — List of ques-
tions and illustrations will be sent upon application.

No. 66. Feeding chickens zvhole grain versus soft food, or rations
with and without some form of meat or skimmed milk.

No. 68. Keeping the record of a Hock of hens in order to balance
their rations. — Weigh all the food which a flock of fowls consumes dur-
ing one or more weeks. Keep a record of the eggs laid each day and the
age, variety and number of hens in the flock. Send report on blanks
which we furnish on application and if it is desired, we will figure the
nutritive ratio and cost of the ration, and will suggest changes if necessary.

No. 69. Estimating the capacity and cost of a poultry house. — Send
measurements of poultry houses, giving length, breadth, height to plate
and ridge. Figure the square feet of floor space, cubic feet of air space,
square feet of window opening: number and kind of fowls enclosed.
Draw end view, front view, ground plan and show construction of walls,
kind of roof, straw loft, etc. Blank forms will be furnished.

VII. DAIRY INDUSTRY.
R. A. Pearson.

No. 80. Churning. — To churn cream from fresh and stripper cows
to determine best method of handling the cream from cows far advanced
in the period of lactation.

No. 81. Small-top milking pails. — To determine their practical ad-
vantages and disadvantages.

No. 82. Period of ripening. — A comparison of long and short
periods of cream ripening.

No. 83. Washing cream. — The effect of this treatment upon the
flavor and grain of butter.

No. 84. Whey butter. — Best methods of handling whey and cream
for making whey butter.

No. 85. Sanitary dairying. — To determine cost in labor and cash
outlay necessary to improve the sanitary condition of a dairy, using
score card to report conditions existing.

470 Reading-Course for Farmers.

No. 86. Over-run in churning. — To determine effect of tempera-
tures of churning and temperatures of wash water.

No. 87. Variations in the composition of milk. — To determine ef-
fects of different conditions upon the fat content of milk.

No. 88. Small sized cheese. — A test of the market demand for small
cheese.

VIII. PLANT DISEASES.
H. H. Whetzel.

No. 90. Oat smut. — Experiment to show the value of treating the
seed with formalin for the control of the. disease.

No. 91. Loose smut of ivheat. — Special hot water treatment of seed
wheat to determine to what extent this disease may be controlled.

No. 92. Potato scab. — Experiments to demonstrate the value of
treating seed potatoes with formalin or corrosive sublimate to control
scab.

No. 93. Club root of cabbage. — Experiments in liming the soil for
the control of this disease.

No. 94. Bean Anthracnose or pod spot. — (a) To determine whether
it is possible to grow a clean bean crop with seed from selected spot-free
pods, (b) Spray mg with Bordeaux to determine its value as a pre-
ventive of this disease in field practice.

No. 95. Feeding copper sulfate to plants as a preventive of fungous
diseases and also as a stimulus to growth and production in the host.

No. 96. Fire blight. — The control of this disease in young pear and
apple orchards, (a) By the fall and winter treatment of "hold over
cankers ;" ( b) By cutting out blighted twigs and cankers during growing
season; (c) By rubbing off young spurs and water-sprouts from trunks
and main limbs of the tree.

No. 97. Black rot of grapes. — We especially desire to arrange co-
operative experiments on the control of this disease based ( i ) upon
sanitary cultural methods and (2) upon applications of Bordeaux mix-
ture to the vines.

No. 98. Plans for the control of diseases of any crop in which you
are especially interested will be prepared if possible and furnished upon
application.

IX. SOILS.

E. O. FippiN.

No. 1'. (a) Drainage. — Study may be made of the relative effective-
ness, cost and returns from open drains as compared with tile drains.

Farmers' Cooperative Experiments. 471

The open drains are generally less efficient as carriers of water. They
must be annually renewed and kept clean and they cut up the surface of
the field, making inconvenient the use of machinery. In addition to
these considerations, it is possible to make a comparison of the cost of
the two methods of drainage over a period of years. The expenses of
maintenance, inconvenience and low efficiency of the open drain may be
set over against the greater first cost and efficiency of the tile drains.
Further, it is frequently believed that tile drains are inefifective on heavy
clay soil and consequently open drains are used. It is of interest and
value to compare the two methods of drainage under uniform conditions
on such soil. Such an experiment must necessarily continue for a num-
ber of years to give any definite information.

(b) Different soils require different drainage treatment. This de-
partment would like to co-operate with farmers to detennine the best
method of drainage under their soil conditions. This would involve a
trial of dift'erent depths and frequency of the lines of tile. Many farms
need drains only in sags or low areas while other farms should be drained
systematically. Suggestions may be given as to the relative use of these
two methods.

(c) Drainage experiments may be taken up with the purpose of
determining their effects upon the soil, the climatic conditions, length of
season and number of available working days on drained and undrained
land.

Persons desiring to experiment on any phase of drainage should cor-
respond with the College, stating the location of his farm, lay of the land
and character of the soil and also the kind of study he is willing to
take up.

No. 2. Fertilisers. — (a) The department will suggest a system of
fertilizer trials which will show the most profitable material or combina-
tions of material for use on the particular soil. In applying for partici-
pation in such an experiment, the location of the farm, character of the
soil, lay of the land, its agricultural history, if possible, the kind of crops
grown and the system of farming followed should be stated. The area of
land upon which the experiment will be made should be stated, if it is
to be other than a small area devoted to a series of fertilizer plots. If
desired, larger trials on a whole field may be made in which case the plan
of treatment will be adapted to the local conditions.

When application is made for fertilizer experiments, arrangements
will be made by this department to have the materials shipped to the
station nearest to the farm. These materials will be supplied at cost.
The following is the scheme that will be arranged for plot experiments.

472

Reading-Course for Farmers.

Plot Test of Fertilizers

Lime

Manure

o

0)

O

o

a,

o

C

M
O
u

o

0)
X.
O

a

w

O

o

C

o

O

-4-1

C C
o3 M

1l

O

o

0)

a
o

O

Potash, Phos-
iihate and
Nitrogen

o

FiV/(f T^^; of Fertilizers

Lime

Manure

x;

tn

+^

V
*^
03

x:

a

C

M

4->
Oj

j:

oi

a

m
nJ

O

c

&£■

+J

03

x:

0,

Oh

C

yi
cS
■*-»

a,

Farmers' Cooperative Experiments. 473

(b) Lime. Trials may be made of the effect of one or more forms
of lime in one or more amounts per acre.

(c) Green manures. Trial may be made of one or more crops
used as green manure to determine the effect of the humus produced
upon the succeeding crops and the returns from such practice.

The above experiments with fertilizers may very well be combined
with some of the experiments with crops or with the study of crop rota-
tions, thereby reducing the area of land which might be used by the two
experiments run separately and increasing the information obtained.
It is particularly desirable that some such combination be arranged. The
two or more phases of such an investigation would still be directed by
the person at the College having charge of such work, but the combination
should be indicated in the application for co-operative work.

No. 3. Tillage experiments. — (a) Study of ridge as compared with
level culture of hoed crops.

(b) Study of deep as compared with shallow cultivation.

(c) Study of the value of a soil mulch properly and continuously
maintained as compared with ordinary cultivation designed to keep
down weeds.

(d) Study of the disc harrow or Meeker harrow and planker as
compared with the roller as clod crushers on clay soil.

(e) Study of fall plowing as compared with spring plowing on clay

soil.

(f) Study of early spring plowing as compared with late spring
plowing on summer crops.

X. UNPRODUCTIVE FIELDS OR SPOTS.

T. L. Lyon.

" It is requested that any one having a piece of soil on his farm that
is unproductive as compared with surrounding soil, communicate with
the department of Experimental Agronomy, New York State College of
Agriculture. An inquiry will be made into the cause of the difficulty and
if it is a matter of more than local importance, a careful investigation will
be made and an effort put forth to make the land productive."

SUPPLEMENT TO

CORNELL

1Rea6ing:=Course for jfatmers

Published Monthly by the New York State College of Agriculture
AT Cornell University, from November to March, and Entered at
Ithaca as Second-class Matter under Act of Congress, July i6, 1894.
L. H. Bailey, Director. Charles H. Tuck, Supervisor.

SERIES VIII. ITHACA, N. Y. ^^viNE

MISCELLANEOUS. JANUARY IQ08. TUBERCULOSIS.*

DISCUSSION-PAPER ON FARMERS' READING-COURSE

BULLETIN NO. 38.

On Sections V, VI and VII.

A Discussion-paper is scut out with all Farmers' Reading-Course
Bulletin, for two reasons: (i) We should like to have your oimi ideas on
these subjects. On some of these points you have probably had experience
that zvill be interesting and valuable to us. No matter what the Bulletin
says, if you have different opinions on any of these subjects, do not hesi-
tate to state tJiem on this paper and give your reasons. (2) We shoidd
like you to use this paper on which to ask us questions. If there are any
points cchicli the Bulletin has not made clear or if there are any problems
in your farming, zvhcthcr on these subjects or others, on which you think
we may be able to help yoy,, zvrite to us on this paper.

The Next Reading-Course Bulletins will be sent to those who
return to us this discussion-paper, which will be an acknowl-
EDGMENT TO THE RECEIPT OF THE BULLETIN. This paper zvUl iiot bc
returned to you, but zue shall look it over as carefully as zve zvould a
personal letter and zvrite to you if there any points about zvhich corre-
spondence is desirable. You may consider this Discussion-paper then, as
a personal letter to us. It zvill he treated as such, and under no circum-
stances zvill your remarks be made public. As the Discussion-paper will
contain zvritten matter, it zvill require letter postage.

If you are interested in this Reading-Course Bulletin, zve have others
on other subjects, and zve shall be glad to send any of these to you on
tequest. The titles of the eight Series of the Reading-Course Bulletins
nozv available are: i. The Soil and the Plant. 2. Stock Feeding.
3. Orcharding. 4. Poultry. 5. Dairying. 6. Farm Buildings
and Yards. 7. Helps for Reading. 8. Miscellaneous. Helps for
Reading, in the Farmers' Wives' Reading-Course, on domestic subjects,
is also sent to those zvho desire it.

*For a discussion of this question see Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin, 250.

475

476 Reading-Course for Farmers.

BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS

Answers to the following questions will furnish valuable information
relative to this important disease. With the accumulation of knowledge
on this subject more effective measures for the elimination of this cattle
scourge may be obtained. Do not fail to answer what you can.
I. How many head of cattle have you?

2. How many cattle have you had tested with tuberculin?

3. What percentage re-acted?

4. Do you know how prevalent bovine tuberculosis is in your locality?

5. Do you know of any herds which have been infected by the purchase
of a tuberculous animal or animals ?

Farmers' Cooperative Experiments. 477

Do you know of any calves that have been infected by feeding them
with the whole or separated milk from tuberculous cows? If so,
how many?

What method of eliminating the tuberculous cattle is best adapted
to the conditions in your locality?

8. What bulletins and what other literature have you read on the subject
of bovine tuberculosis?

9. When a herd is found to con